Bernard Williams: The Idea of Equality

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand Bernard Williams’ contributions to social and political philosophy, particularly his views on equality.
2. Grasp the philosophical underpinnings of Williams’ critique of modern notions of equality.
3. Examine the relationship between equality and other moral and social principles in Williams’ thought.

Bernard Williams, a profound figure in postmodern social and political philosophy, engages with the concept of equality in a way that diverges from both classical and contemporary liberal traditions. His reflections on equality are deeply critical and reflective, exploring the tension between moral equality and social stratification. Williams is often concerned with how philosophical concepts, like equality, function in the real world, especially in terms of human experience and the complexity of human motivation.

The Foundations of Equality in Williams’ Thought

Equality, in the view of Bernard Williams, is not merely a political or social ideal but one that must reflect human concerns rooted in both dignity and social justice. His philosophical engagement with equality can be broken down into a series of critical reflections on how it intersects with the broader social and political system:

1. Equality as an Ethical Ideal: For Williams, ethical equality refers to the idea that all human beings possess the same inherent worth. This type of equality is grounded in the recognition of human dignity. He argues that this concept underpins much of modern liberal democratic thought but often fails to fully capture the lived experience of individuals. Equality in dignity means recognizing a baseline moral equality that no individual should be deprived of by social or political structures.

2. Moral Versus Practical Equality: Williams makes a critical distinction between moral equality and practical equality. While moral equality refers to the intrinsic value of each human being, practical equality deals with how society organizes resources, opportunities, and rights. Practical equality is not always achievable, nor does it necessarily follow from moral equality. Williams contends that in practice, inequalities in wealth, education, and opportunity persist because of historical contingencies and social structures. However, disparities in practical equality should be addressed to the extent that they violate the ethically grounded equality of dignity.

3. Equality and the Limits of Justice: Williams questions the limits of justice in creating equality. He asserts that while distributive justice may aim to equalize resources, it may fail to address more fundamental inequalities, such as those based on cultural recognition or social hierarchy. Williams insists that justice alone cannot resolve every form of inequality, suggesting that efforts to create equality through redistribution must also grapple with the deep, structural aspects of social inequality, including historical injustices and cultural oppressions.

4. Equality and Complexity of Human Experience: Bernard Williams critiques overly simplistic accounts of equality that ignore the complex and pluralistic nature of human lives. Williams emphasizes that individual lives are complex and influenced by myriad factors, including personal desires, social pressures, and historical contingencies. Hence, reducing equality to a single metric, such as economic or political equality, would fail to account for the nuances of human existence. Equality, therefore, must be sensitive to the lived experiences of individuals, considering their freedom, identity, and social context.

Equality in the Context of Social Institutions

Williams’ exploration of equality is not limited to its philosophical underpinnings but is intricately linked to the functioning of social institutions. He challenges the idea that equal distribution of goods or opportunities can by itself achieve social equality, pointing to deeper systemic inequalities embedded within political and social systems.

1. The Role of Institutions in Equality: Social institutions, for Williams, play a pivotal role in either perpetuating or alleviating inequality. Institutions such as education systems, legal frameworks, and economic structures are not neutral—they often reflect the power dynamics of society. Thus, when discussing equality of opportunity, Williams emphasizes that these institutions must be examined critically. Equal access to education, for instance, does not guarantee equality in outcomes, as historical privileges or cultural biases may influence the opportunities available to different groups.

2. Equality of Opportunity: Williams is critical of the liberal notion of equality of opportunity. He argues that it fails to address systemic disadvantages faced by marginalized groups. Simply giving everyone the same starting point—what is often referred to as formal equality—does not account for the disadvantages rooted in class, race, and gender. True equality of opportunity would require dismantling these systemic barriers and rethinking how institutions perpetuate inequality.

Important Note: Williams argues that systemic changes to address inequality cannot merely focus on outcomes or opportunities; they must target the underlying social and political structures that perpetuate privilege and disadvantage.

3. Equality and the Welfare State: Williams engages with the idea of the welfare state as a mechanism to create more practical equality. While he supports redistributive policies to address economic inequalities, he remains skeptical about their ability to address deeper social inequalities. The welfare state can provide material support, but it cannot eliminate the hierarchical structures that generate social inequality, such as those based on class status or cultural capital. Williams suggests that more fundamental changes to how society values individuals are required to achieve a more equitable social order.

Critique of Egalitarianism

Bernard Williams is often associated with a critique of egalitarianism, particularly its abstract formulations and utopian aspirations. His critique is not aimed at rejecting equality as a value but rather at questioning the feasibility and desirability of certain egalitarian ideals in practice.

1. Abstract Egalitarianism: Williams critiques what he refers to as abstract egalitarianism, which he sees as detached from the realities of human existence. He argues that egalitarian theories often fail to consider the psychological and social complexity of individuals. Williams contends that humans are not merely economic agents or political subjects but individuals with unique personal histories and cultural identities. Reducing equality to a simple formula of resource distribution overlooks the ways in which inequality is woven into the fabric of social life.

2. The Inescapability of Hierarchy: A key element of Williams’ critique is the argument that hierarchy is inescapable. He does not endorse hierarchies that are arbitrary or oppressive, but he suggests that some form of social differentiation is natural and inevitable in complex societies. Williams believes that attempts to eliminate all forms of hierarchy are not only unrealistic but potentially detrimental to social cohesion. Rather than aiming for total equality, Williams advocates for mitigating the harms caused by unjust hierarchies while accepting that some forms of social differentiation may be legitimate.

3. Equality and Identity: Williams also argues that equality must be balanced against the importance of individual identity. He is critical of egalitarianism that demands homogeneity, where everyone must be treated the same regardless of their unique cultural or personal identity. For Williams, true equality must recognize and respect individual differences, allowing people to express their identities freely within a framework of mutual respect and tolerance.

Process Flow: Moral equality → Practical equality → Institutional effects → Individual identity

Comparative Analysis: Williams vs. Traditional Egalitarianism

Conclusion: The Idea of Equality in a Postmodern Context

Bernard Williams offers a nuanced critique of equality, particularly challenging both the abstract idealism of egalitarianism and the simplistic application of equality in political discourse. He insists on the complexity of human experiences and the deep-rooted nature of social inequalities, making him a significant voice in postmodern social and political philosophy.

MCQ: What is a key critique Williams makes against traditional egalitarianism?

1. It is too focused on moral equality.
2. It oversimplifies human experiences.
3. It neglects the role of redistributive justice.
4. It ignores the importance of hierarchy.
   Correct answer: 2