Advaita Vedānta: Concept of Brahman, Ātman, Vivartavāda, and Anirvachaniya-khyāti

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the metaphysical framework of Advaita Vedānta with a focus on Brahman and Ātman.
2. Explore the epistemological implications of Vivartavāda and the nature of Anirvachaniya-khyāti.
3. Analyze the interrelation between the illusion of the phenomenal world and the non-dual reality.
4. Examine how Advaita Vedānta reconciles empirical and transcendental realities.

The Metaphysical Framework of Advaita Vedānta

Advaita Vedānta, established by Ādi Śaṅkara, is a non-dualistic system of Indian philosophy that primarily focuses on the nature of ultimate reality (Brahman), the self (Ātman), and the relation between illusion (Māyā) and reality. Its core teaching is encapsulated in the statement Brahman is the only reality and everything else is Māyā or illusion.

Concept of Brahman

In Advaita Vedānta, Brahman is the highest and only reality. It is defined as nirguna (without attributes), infinite, and unchanging.

1. Brahman is Nirguna: Brahman is devoid of all qualities and attributes, meaning it transcends all forms, names, and dualities present in the empirical world. The essence of Brahman is pure consciousness (Chit), existence (Sat), and bliss (Ānanda). These are not attributes but the very nature of Brahman itself.

2. Brahman is Infinite: Brahman is not limited by space, time, or causality. Since Brahman is infinite, it cannot be perceived, categorized, or limited by the human mind. As Brahman is the cause of everything, it is beyond all forms of empirical knowledge.

3. Brahman is Non-dual: Advaita means non-duality, and Brahman is the only reality. The entire universe, including individual souls and the material world, appears to exist, but in reality, it is a projection of Māyā. There is no second reality apart from Brahman.

4. Brahman and Māyā: While Brahman is unchanging, the phenomenal world that we experience is due to Māyā, which creates an illusion of multiplicity. Although the world appears to be real, it is subordinated to the absolute reality of Brahman.

Concept of Ātman

The notion of Ātman, or the Self, is central to Advaita Vedānta. According to Śaṅkara, Ātman is not different from Brahman.

1. Ātman is Brahman: Advaita Vedānta asserts the identity between the individual Self (Ātman) and the absolute reality (Brahman). This is expressed in the famous Mahāvākya (great saying) Tat Tvam Asi (“That Thou Art”). The true self of an individual, when freed from ignorance and the layers of Māyā, is identical with Brahman.

2. Ātman is Eternal: Ātman is not subject to birth, death, or change. It is always in a state of pure consciousness, untainted by the body, mind, or any external influence. The experience of pain, pleasure, and suffering is due to the identification of Ātman with the ego (Ahaṁkāra) and physical body.

3. Ignorance and Realization of Ātman: The key obstacle in realizing that Ātman is Brahman is Avidyā (ignorance). Avidyā creates a false sense of individuality and leads one to perceive dualities. Through knowledge (Jnana), this ignorance is dispelled, and one realizes the non-dual nature of reality.

Important Note: The relationship between Brahman and Ātman is one of absolute identity. The distinction between the individual self and Brahman arises only due to ignorance and Māyā, but in truth, they are one and the same.

Vivartavāda: The Theory of Illusory Transformation

Vivartavāda is one of the core doctrines of Advaita Vedānta that explains the nature of the phenomenal world. It posits that the universe and its multiplicity are an illusory appearance of Brahman, without any real transformation.

1. Vivartavāda and Causality: Unlike other schools that accept the real transformation of Brahman (as in Parināmavāda), Advaita holds that the world is an apparent modification of Brahman. This transformation is not real but only illusory, like the appearance of a rope as a snake. The rope remains unchanged, just as Brahman remains unaffected by the illusory world.

2. Illusion and Projection: The world appears diverse due to Māyā. This illusion does not imply that Brahman undergoes any actual modification; rather, the phenomenal world is a mere projection on Brahman, like waves on an ocean, which seem different but are ultimately nothing but water.

3. Examples of Vivartavāda: Classical texts often illustrate Vivartavāda through the illusion of seeing silver in a mother-of-pearl shell, or mistaking a rope for a snake. Just as the rope remains unchanged, so too does Brahman, while the illusion is created by Māyā.

4. Metaphysical Implication: The doctrine of Vivartavāda is essential to support Advaita’s non-dualism. It shows how the world of forms, though empirically real, is ultimately unreal and serves as a veil over the absolute reality of Brahman.

Process Flow: Brahman (unchanging) → Māyā (illusion) → World (apparent modification)

Anirvachaniya-khyāti: The Epistemology of Illusion

Anirvachaniya-khyāti is the epistemological explanation of illusion in Advaita Vedānta. It describes the nature of erroneous cognition and the status of the phenomenal world.

1. Indefinability of Error: Anirvachaniya means indescribable or undefinable. According to this theory, an illusion is neither real nor unreal, but rather something that cannot be categorized in either way. For example, the snake seen in a rope cannot be said to be real (since it disappears on closer inspection) or unreal (since it is experienced).

2. Epistemological Context: In Advaita Vedānta, perception and cognition are often erroneous because of the influence of Māyā. When one perceives the world, they mistake it for being real, even though it is an illusion. Anirvachaniya-khyāti explains that this erroneous perception is neither real nor non-existent, but indefinable.

3. The Status of the World: The world and objects we experience are classified under Anirvachaniya because they appear real to the senses but are revealed to be unreal upon the realization of Brahman. This explains the phenomenal world in which we live — it is empirically real (Vyavahārika Satya) but ultimately unreal (Pāramārthika Satya).

4. Resolution of Error: The realization of Brahman corrects the error of illusion. Advaita maintains that once one attains self-realization, the illusion of the world vanishes, and only Brahman is experienced as reality.

Important Note: The indescribability of the phenomenal world under Anirvachaniya-khyāti serves to bridge the gap between perception and reality, reinforcing the illusionary nature of the world as viewed in Advaita.

Comparative Insights on Vivartavāda and Anirvachaniya-khyāti

MCQ: In Advaita Vedānta, the world is considered:

1. Completely real
2. Indefinable
3. A permanent modification of Brahman
4. An empirical transformation

Correct Answer: 2. Indefinable