Peace Overview

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand how peace has been understood across history and its importance in the modern world.
2. Analyze the relationship between violence and peace and explore structural violence.
3. Examine various approaches to attaining peace and the role of the state.
4. Recognize the limitations of violence as a means of achieving peace.
5. Identify challenges to peace in contemporary society and the global political system.

The media constantly presents images of wars, terrorist attacks, and social unrest, reminding us of the turbulent times we live in. Despite this, the term “peace” has become more common in discourse. Politicians, educators, journalists, and others often invoke peace as a cherished value. However, the meaning of peace remains unclear, even though it is frequently discussed. This chapter will address questions such as: What is peace? Why is it fragile? Can violence be used to establish peace? What are the causes of rising violence in society?

The Concept of Peace in History

Historically, peace has not always been celebrated as a virtue. Some thinkers have viewed conflict as necessary for human advancement. Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher, glorified war as a means of civilizational progress. Similarly, Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian social theorist, argued that those who use force effectively dominate society, calling them the “lions” of the world. On the other hand, religions across the globe have championed peace, and figures like Mahatma Gandhi have promoted peace as a central value. The atrocities of the 20th century, particularly the two World Wars, highlighted the value of peace to humanity. Technological advances, such as the atomic bomb, have caused massive civilian casualties, underscoring the need to avoid conflict.

Notable Historical Conflicts

1. World Wars and the Atom Bomb: Both the World Wars and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki demonstrated the devastating effects of advanced warfare.
2. Cold War Rivalry: The rivalry between the USA and USSR during the Cold War, particularly the Cuban Missile Crisis, brought the world close to total destruction. Nuclear weapons became a threat to humanity.
3. Terrorism: In modern times, terrorism poses a growing threat, further emphasizing the need for peace.

The Meaning of Peace

Peace is often defined simply as the absence of war, but this is misleading. War is typically understood as conflict between nations, but peace can be disrupted by various forms of violence, not just warfare.

1. Violence Beyond War: Events like the Rwandan genocide or the Bosnian conflict represent breaches of peace but are not classified as wars. These instances of violence highlight that the absence of war does not guarantee peace.
2. Definition of Peace as Absence of Violent Conflict: This definition includes all kinds of violence, such as riots, massacres, and physical attacks. However, it fails to capture the deeper causes of violence rooted in society, such as inequalities of caste, class, and gender.
3. Structural Violence: This term refers to social structures that systematically harm individuals or groups, often subtly and invisibly. Examples include caste hierarchies, class disparities, patriarchy, colonialism, and racism.

Important Concept:

Structural Violence: Social arrangements that disadvantage individuals or groups, leading to harm, even if there is no visible conflict.

Forms of Structural Violence

1. Caste System: In India, the caste system historically subjected lower castes to extreme social exclusion and deprivation, which continues in some form even today.
2. Class Inequality: In both developing and developed nations, class disparity leads to poor working conditions and low wages for the laboring class.
3. Patriarchy: Patriarchy manifests in many forms, including selective abortion, child marriage, dowry-related violence, and gender-based violence.
4. Colonialism: While formal colonialism is rare today, the legacy of colonial exploitation persists, as seen in ongoing conflicts like the Palestinian struggle.
5. Racism and Communalism: Racism involves the stigmatisation and oppression of racial groups, as seen in historical events like apartheid in South Africa and the Holocaust. Communalism, especially in South Asia, mirrors this form of violence, often targeting minority religious groups.

Eliminating Violence

True peace requires addressing not only visible acts of violence but also structural violence. Social justice, equality, and democratic governance are essential to building peace. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) emphasizes the need for peace to begin in the minds of men. Modern healing techniques, such as psychoanalysis, can also help reduce individual and societal violence.

1. Challenges to Achieving Peace: Violence is not just personal; it is embedded in social structures, requiring long-term, systemic solutions.
2. Pursuit of a Just Society: A just society is one where structural inequalities are dismantled. Peace is not an end goal but an ongoing process that involves continuously addressing the moral and material needs of society.

Can Violence Ever Promote Peace?

The question of whether violence can bring about peace is contentious. Some argue that violence is necessary to overthrow tyrants and oppressors or to win independence. However, violence tends to spiral out of control, leading to widespread destruction.

1. Historical Examples of Revolutionary Violence: The Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia illustrates how violent revolutionary movements can result in immense human suffering. Similarly, the FLN in Algeria used violent means to gain independence but later devolved into authoritarianism.
2. Pacifism vs. Violent Resistance: Pacifists, like Gandhi, argue that violence cannot lead to lasting peace. Instead, they advocate for non-violent resistance, such as satyagraha. Non-violence, according to Gandhi, involves not just refraining from harm but actively promoting well-being.

Note: Non-violence does not mean passivity. Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violence calls for positive, active efforts toward justice and compassion.

Peace and the State

The existence of separate, sovereign states often complicates the pursuit of peace. States prioritize their own interests and are willing to inflict harm on others to protect those interests.

1. State Sovereignty vs. Global Peace: The Iraq-Kuwait conflict in 1990 is an example of a state’s aggressive actions leading to war. The absence of a world government exacerbates the potential for conflict between states.
2. Democracy and Accountability: A democratic state with accountability to its citizens can promote peace. However, authoritarian regimes, such as Myanmar’s military dictatorship, often use force against their citizens, violating peace.
3. The Role of International Cooperation: Global cooperation, as seen in post-apartheid South Africa, is crucial for safeguarding peace and promoting democracy.

Approaches to the Pursuit of Peace

Various strategies have been developed to maintain peace, shaped by three distinct approaches:

1. State Sovereignty and Balance of Power: This approach accepts inter-state rivalry as a fact and seeks to manage it through mechanisms like the balance of power. For example, 19th-century Europe maintained peace by forming alliances that deterred conflict.
2. Interdependence and Cooperation: Another approach focuses on the growing social and economic cooperation between states, which can temper state sovereignty. The post-WWII unification of Europe is an example of how cooperation leads to durable peace.
3. Supranational Order: The third approach envisions a future where states are replaced by a global community, reducing the chances of conflict. Globalization and cross-border cooperation foster the conditions necessary for world peace.

Contemporary Challenges to Peace

Despite efforts by international bodies like the United Nations (UN), threats to peace persist. Dominant states continue to assert their sovereignty and sometimes resort to military action, as seen in the US interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq. These actions have not only failed to bring peace but have often exacerbated conflict and fueled terrorism.

1. Terrorism: Terrorists, often responding to aggressive state policies, pose a significant threat to global peace. The 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center highlight the dangers of modern terrorism.
2. Weapons of Mass Destruction: The potential use of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons by terrorist groups remains a grave concern. The proliferation of these weapons increases the risk of large-scale destruction.
3. Genocide: The international community has often failed to prevent atrocities like the Rwandan genocide, where nearly half a million people were killed.

Important Note: The failure of international interventions, as in Rwanda, shows the limitations of current global peacekeeping efforts.

Different Approaches Compared

MCQ:
What was a significant factor in promoting the global focus on peace in the 20th century?
A) The rise of democratic governance.
B) The atrocities and destruction caused by the World Wars.
Answer: B