Northern India: Age of the Three Empires (800–1000)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Identify the major empires that rose in Northern India between AD 750 and 1000.
2. Understand the significance of the Pala, Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta empires.
3. Explore the cultural and economic contributions of these empires.

A number of powerful empires arose in North India and the Deccan between AD 750 and 1000, including the Pala, Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta empires.

1. The Pala empire dominated Eastern India until the mid-ninth century.
2. The Pratihara empire held sway over Western India and the Upper Gangetic Valley until the mid-tenth century.
3. The Rashtrakuta empire, which lasted the longest, dominated the Deccan and controlled territories in both North and South India at various times.

Despite their conflicts, these empires provided stability, expanded agriculture, and supported the arts and literature. The Rashtrakuta empire was not only the most powerful but also served as a bridge between North and South India in both economic and cultural matters.

The Struggle For Domination In North India: The Palas

Kanauj became the symbol of sovereignty in North India following the reign of Harsha, a status later acquired by Delhi. Control over Kanauj meant control over the Upper Gangetic Valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture. The Palas and Pratiharas also vied for control over the area from Banaras to South Bihar, both regions rich in resources and with well-developed traditions.

The Pala empire, founded by Gopala around 750 AD, emerged as a response to the anarchy in the region. His successor, Dharmapala (770–810 AD), initially succeeded in expanding his empire by occupying Kanauj and holding a grand darbar attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, Eastern Rajasthan, and other regions.

1. Dharmapala’s attempt to consolidate power in Kanauj was thwarted by the revival of Pratihara power under Nagabhatta II.
2. Although Dharmapala fell back after his defeat near Mongyr, Bihar and Eastern UP remained contested territories between the Palas and Pratiharas.

Failure and Expansion: The Later Palas

Devapala, the son of Dharmapala, succeeded to the throne in 810 AD and ruled for 40 years. His reign marked a shift in focus after the Pala’s failure in the north.

1. Devapala extended Pala control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Orissa.
2. A portion of modern Nepal likely fell under Pala suzerainty during his reign.

For approximately a century, from the mid-8th to mid-9th century, the Pala rulers dominated Eastern India. Their influence extended at times up to Varanasi. Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India in the mid-ninth century, provided an account of the Pala kingdom, referring to it as Ruhma (or Dharma). He noted the Pala king’s ongoing conflicts with his neighbors, the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, and remarked on the strength of the Pala army, which was accompanied by a large force of 50,000 elephants and 10,000–15,000 men employed solely in washing and fulling clothes.

Cultural Patronage and Foreign Relations of the Palas

The Palas were significant patrons of Buddhist learning and religion. Nalanda University, renowned throughout the Eastern world, was revived by Dharmapala, who dedicated 200 villages to its expenses. He also founded Vikramasila University, which became second only to Nalanda in fame. The Palas maintained close cultural relations with Tibet, where noted Buddhist scholars like Santarakshita and Dipankara (Atisa) were invited. This led to a new form of Buddhism in Tibet and an influx of Tibetan Buddhists to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila.

The Palas also had strong trade and cultural links with Southeast Asia. The trade with this region was lucrative, enriching the Pala empire. The Sailendra dynasty of Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighboring islands, which was Buddhist, maintained close relations with the Pala court. Devapala granted permission to the Sailendra rulers to build a monastery at Nalanda and endowed it with five villages, underscoring the close ties between the two empires.

The Pratiharas

The Pratiharas, also known as Gurjara-Pratihars, likely originated from Gurjaratra in southwestern Rajasthan. Initially, they served as local officials but later established several principalities in Central and Eastern Rajasthan. Their prominence rose due to their resistance to Arab incursions from Sindh into Rajasthan.

1. The Chalukya rulers of Gujarat decisively defeated the Arabs in 738 AD, ending the Arab threat in the region.
2. The Pratiharas were later defeated by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopal III in 790 and again in 806–07, after which the Rashtrakutas withdrew to the Deccan.

The real founder of the Pratihara empire was Bhoja, who rebuilt the empire around 836 AD and established Kanauj as the capital. Despite his efforts to extend influence eastward, Bhoja faced resistance from the Pala ruler, Devapala.

Important Note:

Bhoja’s legacy is enshrined in legends, partly due to his adventures, reconquest of his lost empire, and eventual recovery of Kanauj. His title, ‘Adivaraha’, inscribed on some of his coins, reflects his devotion to Vishnu.

The Rashtrakutas

While the Palas and Pratiharas ruled in North India, the Deccan was under the control of the Rashtrakutas. Founded by Dantidurga with a capital at Manyakhet (Malkhed) near modern Sholapur, the Rashtrakutas became a dominant power in Northern Maharashtra.

1. The Rashtrakutas engaged in conflicts with the Pratiharas over Gujarat and Malwa.
2. Govinda III (793–814 AD) and Amoghavarsha (814–878 AD) were among the most notable Rashtrakuta rulers. Govinda III expanded the empire through successful expeditions against Kanauj and in the south against various southern dynasties.

Amoghavarsha is credited with promoting religion and literature, being an author himself. His reign, however, witnessed several rebellions across the vast empire. Indra III (915–927 AD) re-established the empire after defeating Mahipala and sacking Kanauj in 915 AD.

Political Ideas and Organisation

The administrative systems of these empires were inspired by the practices of the Gupta empire, Harsha’s kingdom, and the Chalukyas.

1. The monarch was the central figure in administration, acting as both head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
2. Vassal rulers and autonomous chiefs often limited the area of direct administration by the king, despite the adoption of grand titles like Maharajadiraj and Chakravartin.

Military and Administrative Structure

The armed forces were crucial to maintaining and expanding the empire, consisting of infantry, cavalry, war chariots, and war-elephants. The Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, in particular, imported horses from Arabia, West Asia, and Central Asia to strengthen their cavalry. The empire’s territories were divided into provinces (bhukti or rashtra), districts (visaya), and smaller units (pattala or bhukti), each governed by officials responsible for collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order.

The village was the basic unit of administration, led by a village headman and an accountant, both typically holding hereditary positions. In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, especially in Karnataka, village committees managed local affairs like schools, tanks, temples, and roads, working closely with the village headman.

Religious Influence on State

The period saw a close relationship between state and religion. Most rulers were followers of Siva, Vishnu, Buddhism, or Jainism, providing patronage to religious institutions without persecuting other faiths. The Rashtrakutas were notably tolerant, allowing Muslim traders to settle and preach in their dominions.

Medhatithi, a contemporary thinker, emphasized that while the Dharmashastras provided religious guidance, the Arthashastra or political science governed public duty (Rajadharma). This separation ensured that politics and religion remained distinct,

although religion played a crucial role in legitimizing and strengthening the rulers’ authority.

MCQ: What was the primary factor that legitimized the rulers’ authority during the period of the Three Empires in Northern India?

• A) Military strength
• B) Religious patronage
• C) Economic prosperity
• D) Foreign alliances

Answer: B) Religious patronage