India in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the political landscape of India under Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
2. Analyze the Mughal administration and the mansabdari system.
3. Examine the influence of Nur Jahan in Mughal politics.
4. Identify the key conflicts and foreign policies of the Mughal Empire.

Political and Administrative Developments in India

The first half of the seventeenth century in India was a period marked by progress and growth. During this time, the Mughal Empire was ruled by two competent emperors: Jahangir (1605–27) and Shah Jahan (1628–1658). These rulers consolidated the administrative system developed under Akbar, maintaining alliances with the Rajputs and attempting to broaden the political base by allying with powerful sections such as the Afghans and the Marathas. Trade concessions to various European trading companies were also aimed at promoting India’s foreign trade.

1. The era was characterized by internal peace and cultural growth, especially in the southern states of Bijapur and Golconda.
2. However, negative aspects emerged, including the growing prosperity of the ruling classes, which did not benefit the peasants and workers, whose lives remained hard and miserable.
3. The Mughal ruling class ignored the advancements in science and technology in the West.
4. Succession issues led to instability, posing a threat to political, economic, and cultural growth.

Jahangir’s Reign

Jahangir, Akbar’s eldest son, ascended to the throne without difficulty, as his younger brothers had died during Akbar’s lifetime. However, soon after Jahangir’s succession, his eldest son, Khusrau, rebelled against him. This father-son conflict was not unusual for the time, as Jahangir himself had rebelled against Akbar.

1. Khusrau’s rebellion was short-lived; Jahangir defeated him in a battle near Lahore, captured, and imprisoned him.
2. Jahangir ended the long-standing conflict with Mewar and dealt with the struggle in the Deccan, particularly with Malik Ambar, who resisted the settlements made by Akbar.
3. In the east, Afghan chiefs, supported by Hindu rajas, remained powerful in various parts of East Bengal, causing conflicts.
4. Islam Khan, appointed by Jahangir, managed to quell the rebellion in Bengal, firmly entrenching Mughal power in the region by 1612.

Important Note:

Despite these successes, Jahangir’s reign was marred by health issues and internal conflicts, leading to instability in the latter part of his rule.

Nur Jahan and Her Influence

Nur Jahan played a significant role in Mughal politics during Jahangir’s reign. Her life story, from her first marriage to her eventual marriage to Jahangir, is well known. Along with her father and brother, she formed a powerful group or “junta,” influencing Jahangir and dividing the court into factions. This division allegedly led to a breach between Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan, pushing the latter into rebellion in 1622.

1. Modern historians are divided on Nur Jahan’s political role; some believe she dominated the royal household, influencing court decisions, while others argue that Jahangir retained control over important political matters.
2. Nur Jahan was a constant companion of Jahangir, often joining him in hunting expeditions and setting new fashions at the court.
3. Despite her influence, Jahangir was not entirely dependent on her or the junta, as evidenced by the continued promotions of nobles who were not favorites of Nur Jahan.

Shah Jahan’s Rebellion

Shah Jahan’s rebellion against his father, Jahangir, was sparked by his refusal to march to Qandhar, leading to punitive actions by Jahangir and an open breach. Shah Jahan, supported by the Deccan army and several nobles, attempted to capture Agra but was defeated near Delhi by forces led by Mahabat Khan.

1. Shah Jahan was eventually hounded out of Mughal territories and sought refuge with the Deccani rulers.
2. After retreating to the Deccan, he formed an alliance with Malik Ambar but later reconciled with Jahangir, offering apologies and sending his sons, Dara and Aurangzeb, as hostages to the court.
3. As part of the agreement, Shah Jahan was assigned a tract in the Deccan for his expenses, marking the end of his rebellion.

The Foreign Policy of the Mughals

Following the breakup of the Timurid empire in the fifteenth century, three powerful empires—the Uzbek, Safavid, and Ottoman—emerged in Central Asia, Iran, and Turkey, respectively. The Uzbeks, natural enemies of the Mughals, clashed with the Safavids, leading to alliances and conflicts.

1. The Uzbeks attempted to exploit sectarian differences with the Safavids, who persecuted Sunnis, but the Mughals remained broadminded, not swayed by these differences.
2. The rise of the Ottoman Turks in West Asia posed a threat to the Persians, leading to their interest in befriending the Mughals.
3. The Mughals maintained a cautious relationship with Turkey, refusing to align with the Ottomans and Uzbeks against Iran to preserve the Asian balance of power.

Relations with Iran and the Question of Qandhar

The dread of Uzbek power was the most potent factor that brought the Safavids and the Mughals together, despite Uzbek attempts to raise anti-Shia sentiments against Iran. Qandhar’s strategic and economic significance made it a point of contention between the two empires.

1. Qandhar was vital for the defense of Kabul and was strategically located, dominating southern Afghanistan.
2. Although Qandhar was more crucial to the Mughals than the Persians, early disputes over the region did not hinder good relations between the two empires.
3. Despite cordial relations, the loss of Qandhar to the Persians in 1622 marked a turning point, leading to a decline in Mughal-Iranian relations.

The Mughal Army and Mansabdari System

The mansabdari system and the Mughal army played a critical role in the empire’s administration and military strength. The mansabdari system, developed by Akbar, was maintained with minor modifications under Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

1. Mansabdars were paid based on their rank, with allowances for maintaining a contingent of troops.
2. Jahangir introduced the du-aspah sih-aspah system, allowing selected nobles to maintain a larger quota of troopers without increasing their zat rank.
3. Shah Jahan further reduced the number of troopers a noble was required to maintain, and the month-scale system was introduced to address financial constraints.

Table: Comparison of Key Developments

MCQ: Which system introduced by Jahangir allowed selected nobles to maintain a larger quota of troopers without raising their zat rank?
Answer: Du-aspah sih-aspah system