Government, Economic, and Social Life Under the Delhi Sultanat

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understanding the structure and development of the centralized state under the Delhi Sultanat.
2. Comprehending the role of the Sultan and the dynamics of succession.
3. Recognizing the administrative divisions and the functions of different departments.
4. Exploring the economic and social dynamics, including trade, industry, and the role of peasants.

The State Under the Delhi Sultanat

The state established by the Turks in the late twelfth century evolved into a highly centralized state. For a period, it controlled almost the entire subcontinent, extending as far south as Madurai. However, it began to disintegrate at the start of the fifteenth century, leading to the emergence of independent states across the region. Despite this fragmentation, the administrative system of the Sultanat significantly influenced the emerging states and later, the Mughal administration.

Important Note:

The administrative system established by the Delhi Sultanat played a crucial role in shaping subsequent governance structures in India, particularly influencing the Mughal Empire’s administration.

The Sultan’s Authority and Succession

1. The Sultan held supreme authority in political, military, and legal matters.
2. Though some Sultans declared themselves as the ‘lieutenant of the faithful’, claiming religious legitimacy from the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, the real power lay with the Sultan.
3. The Sultan was responsible for law and justice, appointing judges but also acting as a court of appeal.

In the absence of a clear law of succession, military strength often determined who would ascend the throne. The idea of primogeniture was not fully accepted among Muslims or Hindus. Public opinion also played a role; for instance, the Khaljis avoided entering Delhi for a long time after deposing Balban’s successors, fearing public backlash.

Central Administration

The Sultan was supported by a group of ministers, among whom the wazir was the most crucial. Initially, wazirs were primarily military leaders, but by the fourteenth century, they had become experts in revenue affairs. The wazir presided over a department responsible for both income and expenditure, aided by the Auditor General and the Accountant General.

1. The military department (diwan-i-arz) was another key department, headed by the ariz-i-mamalik, responsible for recruitment, equipping, and payment of the army.
2. Alauddin Khalji introduced significant reforms, such as regular musters and the branding system (dagh) for horses, ensuring military efficiency.
3. Two other essential departments were the diwan-i-risalat, handling religious matters and justice, and the diwan-i-insha, managing state correspondence.

The administration also included intelligence agents (barids) and a department for the ruler’s household. The wakil-i-dar managed these functions, including overseeing the karkhanas, where goods for the royal household were stored.

Local Administration

The Turks divided the country into iqtas, which became the basis for later provinces or subas. Under Muhammad Tughlaq, there were 24 provinces. The muqtis or walis who managed these tracts initially had significant autonomy. However, as the central government strengthened, it began to closely monitor the muqtis, requiring them to remit the surplus revenue to the center.

1. Below the provinces were the shiqs and the parganas. Villages were grouped into units, traditionally known as chaurasi.
2. The amil headed the pargana, while the khut (landowners) and muqaddam (headmen) were the most important figures in the villages.
3. Land revenue was collected by the same set of people as before, ensuring continuity in local administration and helping the Turks quickly establish their authority.

Economic and Social Life

Ibn Battutah, a North African traveler, provided detailed accounts of India’s economic and social life during the fourteenth century. He described the country’s fertile soil, capable of producing multiple crops annually, and the flourishing village industries based on agriculture.

• Peasants formed the majority of the population, enduring hardships due to recurring famines and wars. However, a more prosperous section existed, including owner cultivators and village headmen, who enjoyed a higher standard of living.
• The Hindu rais or autonomous rajas continued to hold power, even under the Sultan’s rule, and were often seen at the Sultan’s court.

Trade and industry thrived under the Sultanat, marked by improved communications and a sound currency system based on the silver tanka and copper dirham.

1. Delhi was the largest city, with Daulatabad (Deogir) matching its size, indicating robust trade between the north and the south.
2. Gujarat was famous for textiles, gold, and silver work, while Bengal was known for raw silk and fine cotton cloth.
3. India imported high-grade textiles from West Asia, raw silk from China, and ivory from Africa, in return for its textiles.

Travel during this period was risky due to robbers, but the royal roads were well-maintained, with sarais for travelers’ safety.

Social Dynamics and Religious Freedom

Medieval society was characterized by great inequalities, especially in urban areas where the Muslim nobility lived in ostentation, contrasting sharply with the simple lives of the masses. Slavery was widespread, with slaves often captured in war or purchased from markets in West Asia and India. Skilled slaves were valued, with some rising to high offices.

• Hindu society saw little change, with strict adherence to caste duties and social norms, including the purdah system among upper-class women.
• Muslim society remained divided into ethnic and racial groups, with Turks, Iranians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims rarely intermarrying.

The state, while Islamic in form, was militaristic and aristocratic. The sultans emphasized the Muslim character of the state and followed sharia as much as possible. However, they supplemented it with their own regulations, or zawabit, to meet the needs of the state.

1. Religious freedom was limited, with temples often targeted during conquests and some converted into mosques.
2. Despite pressures from orthodox theologians, a policy of ‘toleration within limits’ was generally maintained.
3. Conversions to Islam were mainly driven by hopes of political or economic gain, rather than forced by the sword.

Table: Key Aspects of the Delhi Sultanat

MCQ:

Which department was responsible for religious matters and justice under the Delhi Sultanat?

A) Diwan-i-Arz

B) Diwan-i-Risalat

C) Diwan-i-Insha

Answer: B) Diwan-i-Risalat