Economic and Social Life, Education, and Religious Beliefs (800-1200)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the slow pace of change in economic and social life compared to political life.
2. Identify the factors contributing to the decline in trade and the impact on currency circulation.
3. Recognize the role of localism and Brahmanical influence in agricultural expansion.
4. Analyze the spread of Indian culture and religion to Southeast Asia through trade.

Economic and Social Life:
During the period from 800 to 1200, economic and social life in India changed slowly compared to political developments. New elements emerged, but many features from earlier centuries persisted. The decline in trade and commerce in Northern India, often considered a period of stagnation, was marked by:

1. The steady decline of towns.
2. The absence of gold and silver coins between the 7th and 10th centuries.
3. The undoubted decline of long-distance trade within the country, which stemmed from internal conditions such as the rise of many states and the growth of localism.

However, new trade relations developed with Southeast Asia and China, benefiting regions like Bengal, South India, Malwa, and Gujarat. Despite the decline in some regions, silver currency continued in Bengal, and gold remained plentiful in South India.

Trade and Commerce:
The collapse of the Roman Empire did not significantly impact India’s foreign trade as once believed. Instead, India maintained extensive trade relations with:

1. The Byzantine Empire based in Constantinople.
2. The Sassanid Empire based in Iran.
3. Southeast Asia, referred to as Suwarna Bhumi (land of gold).

Internal conditions led to a decline in long-distance trade within the country. The rise of local states promoted self-sufficiency and small-town growth. Brahmans played a crucial role in expanding agriculture by settling in newly granted revenue-free lands.

Cultural Exchange and Overseas Trade:
Despite the decline in some aspects of trade, India’s overseas trade with Southeast Asia and China thrived. Indian merchants, organized in guilds like Manigraman and Nanadesi, were active in these regions. Many merchants settled in Southeast Asia, where Indian Buddhist and Hindu ideas influenced local culture, as evidenced by:

1. The construction of the Borobudur Buddhist temple in Java.
2. The Angkor Wat Brahmanical temple in Cambodia.

Important Note: The ban on sea travel imposed by Dharmashastras during this period did not significantly hinder overseas trade, indicating that these restrictions might have applied primarily to Brahmanas or aimed at curbing the spread of heretical ideas.

Religious Movements and Beliefs:
The period witnessed a revival and expansion of Hinduism and a decline in Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism, particularly, was confined to eastern India under the patronage of the Pala rulers. The decline of Pala power led to a significant decline in Buddhism, with internal corruption further weakening it.

Jainism remained popular, especially among trading communities, and received patronage from the Chalukyan rulers of Gujarat and the Ganga rulers of Karnataka. However, the growing rigidity of Jainism and loss of royal support led to its decline.

Society

Feudal Structure:
During this period, Indian society saw the rise of a class of samantas or feudal chiefs with varied origins. They included:

1. Government officers paid through revenue-bearing villages.
2. Defeated rajas who retained control over limited areas.
3. Local hereditary chiefs and military adventurers.

These feudal lords played a significant role in the governance of the period, often collecting taxes, administering justice, and even assuming governmental roles, leading to a feudal society where the ruling class did not directly engage in labor.

Condition of the People:
While Indian handicrafts like textiles and metallurgy thrived, the condition of the common people varied. Peasants faced numerous taxes and forced labor demands. Literary works and inscriptions suggest that, despite the high standard of handicrafts and agriculture, the common people often suffered due to:

1. Numerous taxes beyond land revenue.
2. Forced labor (visti) and serfdom in some regions.
3. Frequent wars and famines, which exacerbated the burdens on commoners.

Caste System:
The caste system remained the foundation of Indian society, with Brahmanas enjoying elevated status. The smriti writers of this period emphasized the social and religious disabilities of Sudras. There were even discussions on whether the shadow of an untouchable was polluting. Marriages between different castes were frowned upon, and many occupational guilds began to be classified as castes (jati).

Condition of Women

Social Status and Education:
Women during this period were generally considered mentally inferior and were expected to obey their husbands. The Matsya Purana authorized husbands to beat their erring wives, though certain restrictions were imposed. The marriageable age for girls was lowered, limiting their opportunities for higher education.

Important Points:

1. Sati: While some writers made the practice of sati obligatory, others condemned it. The practice seemed to spread with the growing maintenance of large numbers of women by chiefs and disputes over property.
2. Property Rights: With the growth of feudal society, women’s property rights increased, allowing them to inherit family property under certain conditions.

MCQ

Which empire’s collapse is often wrongly associated with the decline of India’s foreign trade during the period 800-1200?

A) Byzantine Empire
B) Roman Empire
C) Sassanid Empire
D) Gupta Empire

Answer: B) Roman Empire

Table Comparing Major Aspects