Cultural Development in India (1300–1500)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the impact of the Delhi Sultanate on cultural development.
2. Identify the architectural innovations introduced by the Turks.
3. Analyze the interaction between Islamic and Indian art, architecture, and literature.
4. Explore the role of Sufi and Bhakti movements in religious integration.

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the early thirteenth century marked a significant phase in India’s cultural development. The arrival of the Turks brought not only Islamic faith but also distinct ideas of governance, art, and architecture. The interaction between the Turks and Indians, who had their own well-developed ideas of art and literature, eventually led to the evolution of a new, enriched culture. However, this process was gradual, characterized by periods of destruction and construction, misunderstandings, and conflicts. Yet, efforts at mutual understanding led to assimilation in various fields like art, architecture, literature, and even rituals, science, and technology. Nevertheless, elements of confrontation persisted, resulting in a non-linear process of cultural convergence that varied across regions and fields.

Architecture

1. The new rulers needed places of worship and residences, leading to the conversion of existing temples and buildings into mosques, such as the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near the Qutab Minar and the Arhai Din ka Jhonpra in Ajmer.
2. The style of decoration avoided human or animal figures due to Islamic beliefs, opting instead for floral designs and Quranic verses artistically intertwined.
3. Indigenous craftsmen, known for their skills, were employed for construction, supplemented later by master architects from West Asia.
4. The widespread use of the arch and dome, borrowed from the Byzantine and Roman architectural traditions, became prominent in their structures.
5. These elements allowed for large halls with clear views, essential for mosques and palaces, and required the use of high-quality mortar to ensure the stones stayed in place.

The arch and dome, though known to Indians, were not widely used before the Turks. Indian architecture typically relied on the slab and beam method, while the Turks integrated both methods. In decoration, Turks avoided human and animal representations, favoring geometric and floral designs combined with Quranic inscriptions, creating an artistic form known as arabesque. They also incorporated Hindu motifs like the lotus and swastika, showcasing their appreciation for decoration. The use of red sandstone added color to their buildings, while yellow sandstone or marble highlighted this color contrast.

The most remarkable example of Turkish architecture is the Qutab Minar, initiated by Aibak and completed by Iltutmish. Contrary to popular belief, it wasn’t dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutab-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki, but rather formed part of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. The Minar stands out for its skilful balconies, the use of red and white sandstone, and the intricate ribbed effect.

Important Note:

The construction of the Qutab Minar and other monumental structures during this period reflects not just the architectural ingenuity of the time but also the cultural synthesis between Islamic and indigenous Indian traditions.

The Khalji period continued this architectural tradition, with Alauddin Khalji building his capital at Siri and adding the Alai Darwaza to the Qutab complex. The Tughlaq period marked the zenith and decline of the Sultanate, with Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq constructing the vast Tughlaqabad complex and introducing innovations like sloping walls (batter) and combining arch and lintel methods. Firuz Tughlaq further developed these ideas in structures like the Hauz Khas and Kotla, while the Lodis added their own touch, incorporating Rajasthani-Gujarati elements and placing buildings on high platforms for better skyline visibility.

Religious Ideas and Beliefs

Islam was already established in India by the time the Turks arrived, with significant influence in Sindh and the Punjab. Sufi saints and Arab travelers had spread Islamic ideas throughout the subcontinent, with notable figures like Al-Biruni familiarizing West Asia with Hindu beliefs. The rise of the Sufi movement in the twelfth century further bridged Islamic and Hindu philosophies, though the core ideology of Sufism remained Islamic.

The Sufi movement was characterized by mystics who renounced the materialism associated with the Islamic empire. Rabia and Mansur bin Hallaj were among the early Sufis who emphasized love as the bond between God and the soul. Despite opposition from orthodox elements, Sufi ideas flourished, with 12 orders or silsilahs emerging. These orders were led by prominent mystics who lived in khanqahs with their disciples, forming a vital link between pir (teacher) and murid (disciple). Sufi practices, such as penance and fasting, were influenced by Buddhist and Hindu yogic traditions, though their origins remain a subject of debate.

The Chishti and Suharwardi Silsilahs

1. Chishti Order: Established in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, the Chishti order became influential in North India, particularly in Ajmer. His disciples, like Bakhtiyar Kaki and Farid-ud-Din, carried forward his teachings, which emphasized simplicity, humility, and service to the community.
2. Suharwardi Order: This order arrived in India around the same time as the Chishtis but remained more politically active, with its followers often engaging in state affairs. Saints like Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharwardi and Hamid-ud-Din Nagori were prominent figures in this order, which was mainly concentrated in Punjab and Multan.

The Bhakti movement also played a crucial role in promoting religious integration. Although its roots can be traced back to the Vedas, it gained momentum in South India between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The Saiva nayanars and Vaishnavite alvars spread the message of personal devotion to God, transcending caste boundaries and advocating for a more inclusive form of worship. This movement gradually spread to North India, where saints like Ramananda and Kabir preached a doctrine of equality and unity. Kabir, in particular, rejected the caste system and emphasized the fundamental unity of mankind, aligning with the Sufi emphasis on love and equality.

Important Note:

The Bhakti and Sufi movements laid the groundwork for religious integration in India by promoting ideas of equality, devotion, and unity, which resonated across different social and religious groups.

The Vaishnavite Movement focused on the worship of Rama and Krishna, with saint-poets using their stories to convey deeper spiritual truths. Chaitanya was a central figure in this movement, advocating for musical gatherings (kirtan) as a form of devotion. This movement transcended caste and creed, drawing followers from all walks of life.

Literature and Fine Arts

Sanskrit Literature continued to thrive, serving as the medium for higher thought and literature. Philosophers like Ramanuja, Madhava, and Vallabha wrote extensively in Sanskrit, and their ideas spread widely across India. Sanskrit also remained the language for various disciplines, including medicine, astronomy, and music. Although there was limited translation of Islamic works into Sanskrit, notable exceptions include the Persian poet Jami’s Yusuf and Zulaikha and works on the astrolabe.

Arabic and Persian Literature flourished with the arrival of the Turks, who brought Persian as the language of literature and administration. The most notable figure was Amir Khusrau, who pioneered the sabaq-i-hindi style, blending Persian and Indian elements. Persian also became the medium for historical writings, with historians like Ziauddin Barani, Afif, and Isami contributing to this tradition.

Regional Languages saw significant development during this period, with Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu, and others rising to prominence. The Bhakti movement played a crucial role in promoting these languages by using them to communicate with the masses. Regional kingdoms, like Vijayanagara and Bijapur, also patronized these languages, integrating them into administrative functions.

Fine Arts experienced a rich exchange of ideas and traditions. The Turks brought with them musical instruments like the rabab and sarangi, and Amir Khusrau is credited with innovations in Indian music, such as introducing new ragas and possibly inventing the sitar. The integration of Perso-Arabic modes with Indian classical music led to the development of a distinctive style, particularly in the kingdom of Kashmir. This tradition of musical patronage continued under the Mughals, beginning with Sikandar Lodi.

MCQ:

Which of the following was a significant architectural innovation introduced by the Turks in India?

• A) The use of human figures in decoration
• B) The widespread use of the arch

and dome

• C) The construction of temples
• D) The adoption of the slab and beam method
  Answer: B) The widespread use of the arch and dome