Consolidation of the Mughal Empire: Age of Akbar

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand Akbar’s early reign and challenges.
2. Analyze Akbar’s military strategies and administrative reforms.
3. Explore the socio-cultural integration under Akbar’s rule.
4. Identify key events in the expansion of the Mughal Empire.

Akbar’s Early Reign and Initial Challenges

When Humayun was retreating from Bikaner, the Rana of Amarkot gallantly offered shelter, which led to Akbar’s birth in 1542. Akbar, just thirteen, was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556 while commanding operations against Afghan rebels in Punjab. His succession to the throne was fraught with challenges:

1. Afghan Power: The Afghans regrouped under Hemu, threatening Mughal authority.
2. Siege of Kabul: Kabul was besieged, and Sikandar Sur loitered in the Siwalik Hills.
3. Bairam Khan’s Role: Bairam Khan, Humayun’s loyal officer, rallied the Mughal forces, becoming the kingdom’s Wakil with the title Khan-i-Khanan.

The threat from Hemu was paramount, with Adil Shah controlling the region from Chunar to Bengal’s border. Hemu, who had risen from a market superintendent to Wazir Vikramajit, was entrusted with expelling the Mughals. He captured Agra and, with a formidable army, marched upon Delhi.

Battle of Panipat and Aftermath

In a crucial battle near Delhi, Hemu defeated the Mughals and occupied the city. However, Bairam Khan quickly mobilized the Mughal forces, leading to another confrontation at Panipat on November 5, 1556.

1. Hemu’s Fate: Although initially successful, Hemu was struck in the eye by an arrow and captured.
2. Mughal Victory: The leaderless Afghan army was defeated, and Hemu was executed, allowing Akbar to reconquer his empire.

Early Expansion of The Empire (1560-76)

Bairam Khan controlled the empire for nearly four years, ensuring the nobility’s obedience. As Akbar matured, Bairam Khan was forced to submit, choosing to retire to Mecca, but he was assassinated en route. Akbar married Bairam Khan’s widow, raising her son as his own, who became Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.

1. Expansion Under Bairam Khan: During his regency, the empire expanded rapidly, with significant conquests like Malwa.
2. Baz Bahadur’s Defeat: Akbar’s forces, led by Adham Khan, defeated Baz Bahadur of Malwa, marking a critical expansion in the region.

Important Note:

The capture and suicide of Rupmati, and Baz Bahadur’s temporary recovery of Malwa, highlight the complex interplay of resistance and submission during Akbar’s early expansions.

Administration and Revenue System

Following the conquest of Gujarat, Akbar turned his focus to the empire’s administration. He adopted Sher Shah’s system, which included land measurement and crop rates, but made several improvements:

1. Annual Assessment Issues: Initially, Akbar faced challenges with central price schedules, leading to delays and hardships for peasants.
2. Introduction of Karoris: Officials called Karoris were appointed to ensure accurate land revenue collection and report local conditions.
3. Dahsala System: In 1580, Akbar introduced the Dahsala system, averaging the last ten years’ produce and prices, fixing one-third of the produce as the state’s share, converted into cash.

The Zabti system of measurement and assessment was crucial, implemented from Lahore to Allahabad and in regions like Malwa and Gujarat. The Batai or Ghalla-bakhshi system, dividing the produce between the state and peasants, was also prevalent under specific conditions.

Mansabdari System and The Army

Akbar’s Mansabdari system was essential for organizing the nobility and the army. Each officer received a rank (Mansab), with the lowest at 10 and the highest at 5000 for nobles.

1. Zat and Sawar: Introduced in 1594-95, Zat indicated personal rank, while Sawar denoted the number of cavalrymen an officer was to maintain.
2. Dagh System: To ensure quality, soldiers’ descriptions were maintained, and horses were branded.

Akbar’s efforts to mix contingents weakened tribal and regional affiliations, creating a more unified military force. The Mughal Mansabdars, paid handsomely, formed the highest-paid service in the world.

Organization of Government

Akbar reorganized the central administration, maintaining local governance structures like the Pargana and Sarkar. Key posts included the Faujdar for law and order, and the Amalguzar for land revenue assessment. The empire’s territories were divided into Jagir, Khalisa, and Inam.

1. Central Administration: Akbar’s central government was based on the Delhi Sultanate model but with enhanced checks and balances. The Wazir, or head of the revenue department, oversaw all income and expenditure.
2. Military Department: The Mir Bakhshi was in charge of the military, intelligence, and information, on par with the Wazir.

Akbar’s careful division of power ensured effective governance, with provincial administration reflecting the central system.

Relations with the Rajputs

Akbar’s relations with the Rajputs were crucial in consolidating the empire. Bhara Mal of Amber allied with Akbar through marriage, setting a precedent for cooperation without the necessity of matrimonial alliances. This alliance secured the services of India’s bravest warriors and ensured peace in Rajasthan, enabling Rajputs to serve across the empire.

1. Rana Pratap’s Defiance: Despite most Rajput rulers accepting Mughal suzerainty, Rana Pratap of Mewar continued to resist, culminating in the Battle of Haldighati. Though defeated, his defiance became a symbol of Rajput valour.
2. Jahangir’s Resolution: Jahangir, Akbar’s successor, resolved the Mewar conflict by restoring its territories and securing peace through strategic alliances.

Akbar’s Rajput policy proved beneficial for both the Mughals and Rajputs, integrating them into the empire’s administration while maintaining their autonomy.

Rebellions and Further Expansion

Akbar’s administrative reforms, which tightened control over nobles and emphasized accountability, led to several rebellions. Regions with traditions of independence, like Gujarat and Bengal, were particularly resistant.

1. Rebellion in Bengal and Bihar: The most serious rebellion occurred in Bengal and Bihar due to the enforcement of the Dagh system and Mirza Hakim’s instigation. Akbar managed to quell the rebellion, reasserting control.
2. Consolidation in the Northwest: Akbar’s focus on the northwest, including Kashmir and Sindh, consolidated the empire’s borders and ensured stability.

Akbar’s triumph over internal and external threats demonstrated the strength of his new administrative system, paving the way for further expansion into the Deccan.

MCQ: What was the primary objective of Akbar’s Mansabdari system?
A. To collect land revenue
B. To organize the nobility and the army
C. To promote cultural integration
D. To establish religious tolerance
Answer: B. To organize the nobility and the army