Climax and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire—I

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the challenges of succession during Shah Jahan’s reign.
2. Analyze the factors leading to Aurangzeb’s success.
3. Examine the political strategies employed during the wars of succession.
4. Evaluate Aurangzeb’s religious policies and their implications.
5. Recognize the impact of regional revolts on the Mughal Empire.

Problems of Succession

The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were marred by a bitter war of succession among his sons. This strife was exacerbated by the absence of a clear tradition of succession among both the Muslims and the Timurids. The ruler’s right to nominate a successor was accepted by some Muslim thinkers, but it couldn’t be enforced in India during the Sultanate period. The Timurid tradition of partitioning proved unsuccessful and was never applied in India.

1. Hindu traditions were similarly unclear regarding succession.
2. According to Tulsidas, a ruler could grant the tika to any of his sons.
3. Many cases existed where this nomination was contested, as seen among the Rajputs.

As Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, rumors spread that he had died, leading to his sons Shuja, Murad, and Aurangzeb making preparations for the inevitable war of succession. Shah Jahan, attempting to avoid conflict, nominated Dara as his successor by raising his mansab and commanding the nobles to obey him. However, this move only heightened the resolve of the other princes to claim the throne.

Aurangzeb’s Success and Dara’s Mistakes

Aurangzeb’s ultimate triumph was due to several factors, including Dara’s divided counsel and underestimation of his opponents. Shah Jahan sent armies to various regions to counter the advances of his sons. Jaswant Singh faced the combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad at Dharmat, choosing to fight despite the unfavorable odds, leading to Aurangzeb’s victory. This victory bolstered Aurangzeb’s prestige while dispiriting Dara and his supporters.

1. Dara made a critical error by sending his best troops to the eastern campaign, leaving the capital, Agra, vulnerable.
2. The forces led by Sulaiman Shikoh, Dara’s son, performed well against Shuja but were delayed in returning to Agra, affecting the defense against Aurangzeb.

After his defeat at Dharmat, Dara sought allies but faced betrayals, notably by the Rana of Udaipur, who was swayed by Aurangzeb’s promises. Dara’s failure to secure crucial Rajput support further weakened his position. The battle of Samugarh in May 1658 highlighted Aurangzeb’s superior generalship. Dara’s defeat led to the eventual siege of Shah Jahan in Agra and his confinement.

Important Note:
Shah Jahan was confined to the fort of Agra, strictly supervised but not mistreated, and remained under the care of his favorite daughter, Jahanara, for eight years.

Aurangzeb, after securing his victory, betrayed his brother Murad, imprisoning him and later having him executed. Dara’s last stand at Deorai near Ajmer ended in his capture and execution, marking the consolidation of Aurangzeb’s power. Aurangzeb’s use of religion as a political tool became evident when he justified Dara’s execution under the guise of protecting the faith and the state.

Aurangzeb’s Reign—His Religious Policy

Aurangzeb’s reign, lasting almost 50 years, marked the territorial climax of the Mughal Empire, stretching from Kashmir to Jinji and from the Hindukush to Chittagong. Aurangzeb was a hardworking and strict disciplinarian, different from his predecessors in his disdain for ostentation and preference for simplicity. Despite being orthodox, Aurangzeb’s religious policy remains a point of contention among historians.

1. Some believe Aurangzeb reversed Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance, undermining Hindu loyalty to the empire.
2. However, newer research suggests that Aurangzeb’s policies should be understood within the socio-economic and institutional contexts of his time.

Aurangzeb was orthodox, adhering to the Hanafi school of Muslim law but did not shy away from issuing secular decrees (zawabit) when necessary. The Zawabit-i-Alamgiri compiled these decrees, highlighting how they sometimes modified the sharia to suit the conditions in India. Despite his orthodoxy, Aurangzeb recognized the political reality that the majority of his subjects were Hindus, and any policy completely alienating them would be unworkable.

Moral and Religious Regulations

Aurangzeb’s reign saw the implementation of moral and religious regulations aimed at aligning society with Islamic principles. These included:

1. Forbidding the kalma on coins.
2. Discontinuing the Nauroz festival due to its Zoroastrian roots.
3. Appointing muhtasibs in all provinces to enforce the sharia and curb public consumption of intoxicants, regulate houses of ill repute, and check weights and measures.

Aurangzeb believed the state was responsible for the moral welfare of its citizens, especially Muslims, but instructed officials not to interfere in private lives. In 1669, he implemented measures considered puritanical, such as forbidding singing in the court, though instrumental music and the naubat continued. The practice of jharoka darshan and ceremonies like weighing the emperor against gold and silver were also abolished, reflecting his austerity.

Aurangzeb’s religious policies had far-reaching consequences. His actions toward temples and the re-imposition of the jizyah tax in 1679 were seen as discriminatory and created resentment among Hindus. Although jizyah was not economically burdensome, its re-imposition was politically and ideologically motivated to rally Muslim support against the Marathas and Rajputs. However, its collection often led to humiliation and corruption, causing widespread discontent.

Aurangzeb’s Relations with Regional Powers

During Aurangzeb’s reign, the Mughal Empire faced several revolts and movements for regional independence. These included:

1. The Jat and Satnami uprisings in the north, driven by agrarian discontent and social unrest.
2. The Afghan conflicts, where tribal leaders sought autonomy and resisted Mughal rule.
3. The Sikh movement, which, under Guru Gobind Singh, transformed into a militaristic struggle for independence.

Aurangzeb’s relations with the Rajputs deteriorated due to his clumsy handling of succession issues in Marwar and Mewar. The breach with these states weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs, creating doubts about Mughal intentions and damaging the empire’s stability.

MCQ:

Which policy of Aurangzeb led to widespread resentment among Hindus during his reign?

1. The abolition of the Nauroz festival
2. The re-imposition of the jizyah tax
3. The appointment of muhtasibs
4. The abolition of the jharoka darshan

Answer: 2. The re-imposition of the jizyah tax