Assessment and Review

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand key political, economic, and cultural transformations from the 8th to the 17th century.
2. Analyze the impact of the caste system and the role of Bhakti and Sufi movements.
3. Examine the reasons for India’s lag in science and technology compared to Europe.

Political, Economic, and Cultural Shifts

The thousand years from the beginning of the eighth century to the end of the seventeenth century witnessed significant changes in the political, economic, and cultural life of India, with some impacts on its social structure. The caste system continued to dominate social life, despite challenges from Islam and the declining political power of the Rajput rulers. These rulers were traditionally seen as protectors of dharma, which included upholding the varna system.

1. Although Nath Panthi Jogis and Bhakti saints criticized the caste system, they couldn’t significantly alter it.
2. A tacit agreement emerged where criticism of caste didn’t extend to secular life, while Brahmans accepted the path of devotion for all castes, especially the Shudras.
3. The Bhakti movement opened up spiritual paths for women, with figures like Mira rising above traditional roles.

Despite these religious reforms, Brahmans maintained their privileged status, particularly in education and preaching.

Important Note:
The Bhakti and Sufi saints played a crucial role in fostering mutual understanding between Hinduism and Islam, contributing to a spirit of harmony and tolerance despite persistent narrow and intolerant views.

Social Hierarchy and Religious Movements

Within the caste system, new subgroups emerged, driven by the absorption of tribal groups into Hinduism, the rise of new professional groups, and local and regional identities. The varna status of these castes fluctuated based on the economic and political power of the groups, such as the Rajputs, Marathas, and Khatris.

1. Bhakti and Sufi saints emphasized true faith over formal observances, influencing both religion and regional languages.
2. Their focus on spiritual matters inadvertently hindered the growth of rational sciences, particularly science and technology.

However, the position of women deteriorated. The practice of purdah became more common, and Hindu women couldn’t claim rights to remarriage or their father’s property, unlike their Muslim counterparts. These rights were increasingly denied even to Muslim women.

Political Integration and Economic Development

The most significant development in the political and economic fields was the political and administrative integration brought about by the Turks and later consolidated by the Mughals. This system, while primarily northern in focus, indirectly impacted other parts of India as well.

1. The institution of a well-minted currency based on silver, development of roads and sarais, and a preference for city life stimulated trade and handicrafts, peaking in the seventeenth century.
2. Under the Mughals, political integration was accompanied by efforts to create a unified ruling class of both Muslims and Hindus.

Despite these efforts, the ruling class remained aristocratic, with limited opportunities for lower classes. Aurangzeb attempted to integrate Marathas and Deccani nobles, but regional and social prejudices hampered this process, particularly for the Marathas.

The Mughal nobility functioned as a bureaucracy dependent on the monarch but derived income mainly from land revenue collected from peasants. This reliance on zamindars led many historians to view the state as essentially feudal.

1. The Turks contributed significantly by defending the country from Mongol invasions during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
2. For 200 years, the Mughals secured India’s northwest frontiers from foreign invasions, establishing defense along the Kabul-Ghazni line.

Impact of European Trade and Naval Power

India’s reputation as a land of spices and a textile manufactory for the Eastern world drew European nations to establish direct trade relations. The richness of the oriental trade spurred European economic and technological growth. However, their inability to offer commodities in demand in the oriental world led them to seek control over Indian territories to fund their purchases of Indian goods.

As long as the Mughal Empire was strong, European nations couldn’t achieve this objective. But the decline of the Mughal empire and the entry of Nadir Shah and later the Afghans, coupled with rapid European development, allowed them to establish dominance in India.

India’s Lag in Science and Technology

Scholars have debated the causes of the Mughal empire’s decline, but India’s failure to match European development in economic and scientific fields warrants further study. The Mughal ruling classes had little tradition of connection with the sea and lacked understanding of the importance of naval power in economic development.

1. India’s backwardness in science and technology was evident in its failure to produce innovations like the mechanical clock, a key European invention.
2. Despite being able to copy European developments in fields like shipbuilding, Indians showed little ability to innovate.

The ruling class’s attitude, combined with the social structure and historical traditions, played a role. The emphasis on past learning and deference to Brahmans and mullahs stifled modernization efforts, including Akbar’s attempt to introduce more science subjects.

Cultural Integration and Economic Growth

Despite these challenges, the period saw significant developments. Political integration paralleled cultural integration, with Indian society developing a unified culture despite differences in race, religion, and language. This unified culture led to a creative outburst, making the seventeenth century a second classical age.

1. In the south, the traditions of the Cholas were continued by the Vijayanagara kingdom.
2. The Bahmani kingdom and its successor states also contributed to cultural developments.

The period was marked by economic development, with trade and manufacturing expanding, though growth was uneven across regions. Areas like Gujarat, the Coromandel coast, and Bengal developed rapidly during the seventeenth century and have remained economic leaders in modern India.

The question remains whether India could have achieved its own industrial revolution had the Mughal empire continued. Although trade and manufacturing expanded in the eighteenth century, India lagged behind Europe in technology. Most manufacturing remained small-scale with artisans using simple tools, limiting productivity. The putting-out system increased production but made artisans dependent on merchants.

Ultimately, these circumstances allowed the British to conquer India and transform it into a colony focused on supplying raw materials.

MCQ:
What was a significant contribution of the Turks during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries?

• a) Promoting the Bhakti movement
• b) Defending India from Mongol invasions
• c) Introducing the mechanical clock
• d) Integrating Marathas into the Mughal administration

Answer: b) Defending India from Mongol invasions