The Initial Years of Independent India

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the key challenges faced by India immediately post-independence.
2. Analyze the leadership and political strategies employed by Nehru and his colleagues.
3. Evaluate the significance of national integration and nation-building initiatives.
4. Discuss the communal challenges and Nehru’s approach to secularism.

The dawn of 15 August 1947, celebrated with joy across India, marked the end of British rule, yet it also came with a dark cloud of partition. Communal riots swept across newly divided territories, causing mass migration, food shortages, and administrative challenges.

Nehru, in his famous address to the Constituent Assembly, captured the essence of the historic moment, stressing both the achievement and the long road ahead to fulfil the promises of the freedom struggle. Centuries of colonial exploitation, ignorance, inequality, and division still weighed heavily on the country.

The post-independence period saw multiple critical issues that required immediate and long-term solutions:

1. Integration of princely states and ensuring India’s territorial unity.
2. Containing and addressing communal violence post-partition.
3. Rehabilitation of six million refugees migrating from Pakistan.
4. Avoiding conflict with Pakistan and dealing with the Kashmir dispute.
5. Addressing the Communist insurgency and maintaining political stability.
6. Reorganizing and stabilizing the bureaucratic and military systems disrupted by partition.
7. Framing a constitution and organizing democratic processes through elections.
8. Abolishing semi-feudal agrarian structures via land reforms.
9. Initiating economic planning and tackling endemic poverty.
10. Building national integration while dealing with Cold War geopolitics.

Nehru repeatedly emphasized that India’s independence was but a first step. The real challenge lay ahead, in transforming the promises of the freedom movement into concrete realities through “incessant striving.”

Key Leadership During the Early Years

India’s initial years of independence were guided by strong leadership. Nehru’s idealism was complemented by practical leaders like Sardar Patel, who played a critical role in integrating the princely states, Rajendra Prasad, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and C. Rajagopalachari. At the state level, leaders like Govind Ballabh Pant, B.C. Roy, and Morarji Desai ensured stability. The Indian National Congress itself, transitioning from a movement to a party, faced challenges but provided cohesive leadership across the nation.

Patel’s decisive actions in resolving critical issues, like the princely state’s integration, were balanced by Nehru’s diplomatic stance. The leadership embodied both integrity and austerity, and no accusations of corruption marred these leaders during their service to the nation.

Important Note: The shared vision among the leadership emphasized values such as secularism, civil liberties, and economic independence, despite differing opinions on socialism and class analysis.

Accession of the Princely States

Integrating nearly 40% of India’s territory, ruled by princes under British paramountcy, was among the first major tasks after independence. The nationalists and the people rejected any princely state’s claim to independence. Their only choice was to join India or Pakistan based on geographical contiguity and the wishes of the people.

Sardar Patel, taking charge of the States’ Department, managed this task with skill and diplomacy. The integration happened in two phases:

1. By 15 August 1947, most of the princely states had acceded to India, except for Junagadh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Hyderabad.
2. By the end of 1948, these remaining states were integrated through a combination of diplomacy and military action.

Kashmir Dispute

Kashmir, bordered by both India and Pakistan, had a Hindu ruler but a Muslim majority population. Initially, the Maharaja of Kashmir sought to stay independent but faced an invasion from Pakistani-backed tribal forces in October 1947. Kashmir’s accession to India was formalized after the Maharaja appealed for help, and Indian troops were sent to repel the invaders. Nehru, while committed to democratic principles, agreed to hold a plebiscite once peace was restored, but the situation remains unresolved due to Pakistan’s refusal to withdraw troops.

The Communal Holocaust and Secularism

Partition was accompanied by a communal holocaust, resulting in the deaths of nearly 500,000 people. Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs faced atrocities on both sides of the border. Despite the chaos, India’s leadership, especially Nehru, upheld secularism as a core principle. Communalism posed the gravest threat to India’s future, and Nehru saw it as the “Indian version of fascism.” He insisted on a secular state, publicly declaring that he would fight any communal violence with his last breath.

Key Measures Taken to Curb Communalism:

1. Decisive measures to control violence: Nehru called the army to quell riots, especially in Delhi, restoring order quickly.
2. Public campaign against communalism: Nehru consistently used public addresses and media to preach against communal hatred.
3. Amendment of the Constitution to curb communal speeches and writings.
4. Collaboration with leaders like Sardar Patel, who also supported a secular India.

Gandhiji’s assassination by a Hindu communal fanatic on 30 January 1948 further shook the nation, but his martyrdom also led to a temporary retreat of communal forces. Nehru’s government also took strong action against organizations like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), blaming them for spreading hatred and fascist ideologies.

Rehabilitation of Refugees

The partition resulted in six million refugees flooding into India, and their rehabilitation was a monumental task. By 1951, the government had fully tackled the resettlement of refugees from West Pakistan, allocating lands and creating livelihoods, particularly in the Punjab region.

However, the problem persisted with East Bengal refugees, as communal tensions led to periodic exodus from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) for years until 1971. The differences in settlement options for these refugees complicated the process:

• West Punjab refugees could be settled on land vacated by Muslim migrants.
• East Bengal refugees, especially in West Bengal, often had no land and had to survive in urban areas as an underclass.

Relations with Pakistan and the Nehru–Liaqat Pact

Despite the tensions, Nehru aimed for conciliation with Pakistan. The Kashmir issue remained a major source of friction, alongside the treatment of minorities in East Bengal. The Nehru–Liaqat Pact of 1950 was a significant effort to protect minorities on both sides, though it faced opposition from Hindu communalists.

India’s generosity extended even to the distribution of canal waters and ensuring fair treatment in trade negotiations with Pakistan. However, efforts to promote peaceful coexistence were often undermined by the communal politics of both countries.

Nehru and the Communists

The post-independence period also saw a left-wing challenge from the Communist Party of India (CPI). By 1948, the CPI declared a revolutionary agenda and initiated militant activities, especially in the Telangana region. Nehru, though critical of their methods, did not favor banning the party until sufficient evidence of their violent activities was provided.

1. Nehru allowed the CPI’s legalization once they renounced violence and embraced the parliamentary system.
2. Elections of 1951–52 marked their entry into democratic politics.
3. Nehru’s critique of the Right-wing was sharper, viewing them as more dangerous due to their fascist and feudal concepts.

Important Note: Nehru differentiated between the ideological basis

of the Communists and Right-wing groups, finding the former less dangerous due to their focus on social and economic reform, while the latter were seen as lacking any constructive ideology.

The French and Portuguese Settlements

India’s integration remained incomplete without addressing the French and Portuguese territories. While France handed over its possessions, including Pondicherry, in 1954 after peaceful negotiations, the Portuguese, with backing from NATO allies, refused to cede control over Goa and other territories.

• Goa’s Liberation (1961): After prolonged efforts, Nehru ordered military action, and Goa was liberated in December 1961, bringing an end to over 450 years of colonial rule in that region.

MCQ:

Which major Indian state did not initially accede to India by 15 August 1947?

• A) Junagadh
• B) Hyderabad
• C) Jammu and Kashmir
• D) All of the above

Answer: D) All of the above

Key Comparisons