Indian Women Since Independence

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the progression of women’s legal, social, and political status post-independence.
2. Analyze the key movements and legislative changes impacting women’s rights in India.
3. Examine regional and national disparities in education and health affecting women.

Beginnings

The legal, political, educational, and social status of Indian women underwent substantial transformations after independence. These changes were rooted in the social reform movements of the nineteenth century, led by figures like Ram Mohan Roy. The freedom struggle also mobilized women extensively, culminating in their involvement in both nationalist and social reforms. Women were not just passive recipients of justice but active participants in the national movement by the 1930s and 1940s.

1. Involvement in national movements: Women participated in various movements such as Gandhian, Socialist, Communist, and revolutionary nationalist efforts.
2. Post-independence focus: Upon independence, attention turned to securing legal and constitutional rights for women.
3. Constitutional equality: The Indian Constitution granted women voting rights without any educational or property qualifications.
4. Hindu Code Bill: Initiated by Nehru in the 1950s, this sought to reform Hindu personal law, especially in areas of marriage, inheritance, and divorce.
5. Opposition and partial success: While the bill faced opposition, it eventually passed as four separate acts, covering aspects such as monogamy, divorce, maintenance, and property rights for Hindu women.

Important Note:

Women’s legal rights post-independence, while groundbreaking, often remained unclaimed in practice, especially in terms of inheritance.

6. Shah Bano Case: Highlighted the limitations of extending legal rights to women of other religious communities. The controversy led to government backtracking, indicating the complexity of religious and legal reform.
7. Dowry and inheritance: Social customs like partilocal residence and dowry continued to influence women’s economic standing, and many forwent their legal inheritance rights.

Women’s Movements: Post-1947

Post-independence, the women’s movement diversified, addressing issues like dowry deaths, rape, and domestic violence. The involvement of women in mainstream politics and grassroots movements heightened awareness of these injustices.

1. Women’s organizations: Groups like the All India Women’s Conference worked on women’s issues, but others like Communist women formed the National Federation of Indian Women.
2. Peasant and trade union movements: Women participated in the Tebhaga movement and Telangana struggle, focusing on domestic violence and property rights.
3. Anti-price rise and JP movements: Women’s participation in these movements in the 1970s helped raise their self-confidence, enabling a deeper understanding of patriarchy.

Movements of the 1970s and 1980s

Various movements emerged that placed women at the center of social and political reforms.

4. SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association): Founded in Gujarat, it organized women in the unorganized sector and became a model of success for women’s economic empowerment.
5. Anti-liquor movements: From Maharashtra to Uttarakhand, these movements addressed domestic violence and the negative impact of alcohol on women.
6. Chipko movement: Women played a major role in this environmental struggle, emphasizing the link between women and environmental conservation.
7. Chhattisgarh and land rights: Movements led by women demanded land titles be registered in their names, influencing policy changes in some states.

Legal and Political Activism

The Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila Udyog Sangathan and other women’s groups worked tirelessly for the rights of victims of industrial disasters and led efforts against the brutalization of politics.

1. Autonomous women’s groups: These emerged from urban centers in the mid-1970s, consisting of women influenced by movements like the Naxalite struggle.
2. Manushi journal: Played a key role in documenting and analyzing the women’s movement.
3. Dowry and rape laws: The campaigns against dowry-related deaths and police rape led to significant legal reforms in the 1980s, though their impact was limited.
4. Sati controversy: The case of Roop Kanwar stirred national debate, with opposition coming from Arya Samajists and anti-caste movements.
5. Focus shift: By the 1980s, there was a shift from mass campaigns to more institutionalized efforts such as legal aid centers, research, and women’s health campaigns.

Impact on Policy

6. National Perspective Plan for Women (1988): Addressed issues of health, education, and political participation.
7. Panchayati Raj Bill (1993): Reserved one-third of the seats in panchayats for women, marking a significant step in political representation.
8. DWACRA and Mahila Kosh schemes: Government initiatives that supported rural women through credit and vocational programs.

Health and Education: A Record

The female literacy rate in India has historically been abysmally low, with wide regional disparities. The situation in Barmer, Rajasthan was particularly dire, with only 8% female literacy.

1. Rural education: In states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, two-thirds of rural girls aged 12–14 had never been enrolled in school.
2. Female literacy in Kerala: In contrast, Kerala achieved 86% adult female literacy in 1990-91, surpassing even China.
3. Himachal Pradesh’s progress: By the 1980s, Himachal Pradesh had achieved near universal literacy in urban areas and was second only to Kerala.
4. Tamil Nadu: Made significant strides in reducing its fertility rate and infant mortality rate, ranking just behind Kerala.

Important Note:

The stark contrast between Kerala and states like Rajasthan illustrates the impact of historical advantages and public policies in fostering gender equity.

Key Comparative Indicators

Barriers and Opportunities

1. Access to schools: In many parts of India, single-teacher schools dominate, leading to low female literacy.
2. Health services: Access to primary health care is another crucial factor for women’s survival and empowerment. Unequal access to healthcare has contributed to the decline in the female–male ratio.
3. Kerala’s model: Over 90% of women in Kerala deliver babies in medical institutions, showing the success of accessible healthcare.
4. Political participation: Despite the legal provisions, women’s active participation in local and national politics remains limited, though panchayat reservations have had positive effects.

Challenges and Future Directions

The legal rights granted to women in the Constitution remain largely unrealized due to socio-economic barriers. The success of Kerala and Himachal Pradesh offers a roadmap for other regions. However, the women’s movement needs to incorporate a broader focus on education and health to achieve sustained empowerment.

MCQ:
Which movement in the 1970s addressed environmental issues through the participation of women?

• A) SEWA
• B) Chipko
• C) Shahada
• D) Anti-Price Rise

Answer: B) Chipko