From Shastri to Indira Gandhi, 1964–1969

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the political transitions in India between 1964–1969.
2. Explore the role of key figures like Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi.
3. Assess the internal dynamics of the Congress party and its factions.
4. Analyze the key challenges faced by India, both domestic and international.

The death of Jawaharlal Nehru in May 1964 triggered concerns about the stability of India’s political system. There were fears that Congress would fragment over the issue of succession. However, the smooth transition of power reaffirmed the strength of Indian democracy. Nehru had deliberately refrained from naming a successor, relying on democratic processes. Two primary contenders emerged for the position of Prime Minister: Morarji Desai and Lal Bahadur Shastri. Desai, while an experienced and honest administrator, was seen as rigid and unpopular within the party. On the other hand, Shastri, known for his mild and tactful demeanor, was respected widely for his integrity.

The decision regarding the succession was influenced by the Syndicate, a group of Congress leaders, including K. Kamaraj, Atulya Ghosh, S.K. Patil, and others. They opposed Desai and favored Shastri, whom they believed would be more accommodating to their influence. Despite some internal dissent, Shastri was elected unopposed and assumed the role of Prime Minister on June 2, 1964, just a week after Nehru’s death.

The Shastri Years

During his tenure, Shastri kept most of Nehru’s cabinet intact, persuading Indira Gandhi to join as Minister of Information and Broadcasting. While he preferred to keep a low profile, his government struggled to address critical issues decisively. Some of these challenges included:

1. Language Dispute: Tensions between Hindi and English as official languages erupted in 1965 but were resolved only in early 1966.
2. Regional Demands: Agitations for the creation of a Punjabi Suba and the merger of Goa with Maharashtra were left unresolved.
3. Economic Struggles: India’s economy had stagnated, worsened by a severe food shortage. Buffer food stocks were nearly exhausted, leading to statutory rationing in major cities. The Green Revolution strategy, aimed at achieving self-sufficiency in food production, began but was pursued aggressively only later during Indira Gandhi’s regime.

Despite these difficulties, critics accused Shastri of indecision and inability to lead decisively. Yet, by 1965, Shastri began asserting himself, particularly in the area of foreign policy. He distanced himself from Kamaraj and established the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO), which gained significant influence. Shastri’s defining moment came during the Indo-Pak war of 1965.

Important Note:

The Indo-Pak war of 1965 significantly shaped Shastri’s legacy, boosting national morale and unity, especially after the setbacks of 1962 with China.

Indo-Pak War, 1965

The issue of Kashmir had been festering, with Pakistan hoping to exploit unrest in the region. In April 1965, Pakistan tested India’s response by occupying parts of the Rann of Kutch. Though India’s military response was weak, Pakistan underestimated India’s resolve. Later, Pakistan sent infiltrators into Kashmir, which prompted Shastri to order the Indian Army to cross the ceasefire line. In retaliation, Pakistan launched a major attack in September, which led to an all-out war. The conflict ended with a ceasefire on September 23, but not before both nations had suffered significant losses.

While the war was inconclusive, India emerged politically stronger and unified. Indian Muslims supported the war effort, and the country’s secular credentials were reaffirmed. Shastri’s leadership earned him widespread acclaim.

The ceasefire led to the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966, where both India and Pakistan agreed to withdraw to pre-war positions. However, the Tashkent talks took a toll on Shastri’s health, and he tragically passed away from a heart attack soon after signing the agreement.

Indira Gandhi’s Ascendancy

Shastri’s sudden death raised the question of succession once again. Morarji Desai contested the position, but the Syndicate backed Indira Gandhi, seeing her as inexperienced and malleable. Despite Desai’s confidence, Indira Gandhi won the contest decisively on January 19, 1966. Her victory showed that being a woman was not a handicap in Indian politics, as women had held significant roles during and after the freedom struggle.

Indira Gandhi: Early Challenges

Indira Gandhi faced immediate challenges. The economic situation was dire, with industrial production declining and droughts in successive years causing food shortages and inflation. Famine conditions emerged in several regions, especially in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. While the government handled the drought effectively, preventing mass famine deaths, economic decisions, such as the devaluation of the rupee by 35.5% in June 1966, proved controversial.

The rupee’s devaluation aimed to boost exports and attract foreign capital, but it failed to achieve these objectives. There was widespread criticism, particularly from Kamaraj and the Congress left, and Indira Gandhi herself later admitted that the devaluation was a mistake.

Important Note:
The decision to devalue the rupee, though made with the intent to bolster exports, was deeply unpopular and had little positive impact, casting a shadow over Indira Gandhi’s early leadership.

Foreign Policy and Relations with the US

Indira Gandhi’s early foreign policy was shaped by her need for American aid. Her visit to Washington in March 1966 initially seemed promising, with President Johnson pledging food and financial assistance. However, the US adopted a ‘ship-to-mouth’ approach, delivering aid in small, conditional installments, which India found humiliating.

India soon distanced itself from the US and aligned more closely with the Soviet Union, as seen during her Moscow visit in July 1966, where she criticized US actions in Vietnam. Mrs. Gandhi also abandoned an American proposal for an Indo-American Educational Foundation, responding to growing domestic criticism of American interference in Indian education.

Domestic Unrest and Political Agitation

The year 1966 was marked by widespread popular unrest. Spiraling prices, food scarcity, and unemployment provoked mass agitations, student strikes, and violent demonstrations. The rise of bandhs—shutdowns of towns and cities—became a new form of protest. Teachers, government employees, and professionals joined the strikes, demanding higher pay to combat rising prices. Opposition parties, particularly the CPM, Socialists, and Jan Sangh, seized the opportunity to challenge the government.

An issue that particularly inflamed passions was the demand for a ban on cow slaughter, led by communal forces like the Jan Sangh. Mrs. Gandhi, however, resisted these demands, emphasizing the secular nature of Indian society. The movement culminated in violent protests outside Parliament in November 1966, leading to several deaths.

The 1967 General Elections and Congress Decline

The 1967 general elections were a watershed moment in Indian politics. Congress, which had dominated Indian politics since independence, faced a significant setback. The party’s leadership, divided and factionalized, went into the elections weakened. The Syndicate‘s control over the selection of candidates alienated many within the party, leading to dissident Congressmen running as independents or joining Opposition alliances.

Opposition parties, though ideologically disparate, united with the common goal of defeating Congress. The Jan Sangh, Swatantra, Socialists, and regional parties formed alliances in several states, and Congress suffered losses across the country. While it retained control of the Lok Sabha, its majority was drastically reduced, and it lost control of eight state assemblies, including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal.

Key Electoral Trends (Table):

Coalition Governments and Defections

The 1967 elections ushered in an era of coalition governments. In states where Congress lost its majority, opposition parties formed coalition governments, often unstable due to ideological differences. States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab saw governments formed by a patchwork of Swatantra, Jan Sangh, Socialists, and Communists. These coalitions were marked by internal strife, frequently leading to defections and the collapse of governments.

The politics of defection became rampant, with legislators frequently

changing sides for personal gain. Haryana became notorious for this phenomenon, giving rise to the term “Aya Ram, Gaya Ram” to describe legislators who switched allegiances. This instability would plague Indian politics until the passage of the anti-defection law in 1986.

Important Note:
The rise of coalition politics and defections in the late 1960s marked the beginning of fragmented and unstable state governments, a trend that persisted for decades in Indian politics.

Rise of Anti-Congressism

The post-1967 period saw the rise of anti-Congressism, particularly among intellectuals and socialist leaders like Rammanohar Lohia. This political phenomenon aimed to unite all opposition forces, regardless of ideology, against Congress. However, this unity was short-lived, as ideological divisions between parties like the Communists, Swatantra, and Jan Sangh resurfaced, preventing the formation of a cohesive opposition front.

Naxalites and Revolutionary Politics

The late 1960s also witnessed the rise of the Naxalite movement, which originated from a split within the CPI (M). Inspired by the Cultural Revolution in China, the Naxalites advocated for armed peasant insurrections. They launched a rebellion in the Naxalbari area of West Bengal in 1967, which was quickly suppressed by the government. Despite initial support from radical students and young activists, the movement splintered into factions and gradually lost momentum.

MCQ:
What key event significantly boosted Lal Bahadur Shastri’s national standing?
Answer: The Indo-Pak war of 1965.

Comparison Table: Shastri vs. Indira Gandhi