Foreign Policy: The Nehru Era

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understanding Nehru’s role in shaping India’s independent foreign policy post-1947.
2. Analyzing the concept of non-alignment and its significance in global politics.
3. Examining India’s relations with global powers and its neighbors.
4. Investigating India’s stance on global conflicts and international movements.
5. Assessing the evolution of India’s foreign policy during Nehru’s leadership.

The Basic Parameters

India’s independent foreign policy, marked by continuity and consistency, is a defining aspect of post-1947 politics. Jawaharlal Nehru was instrumental in crafting this policy, believing that India’s civilization required her to have her own voice on the global stage.

Key Aspects of India’s Foreign Policy:

1. Nehru’s understanding that joining military blocs of major powers would have disadvantaged newly independent countries.
2. India’s rejection of alliances like the Baghdad Pact, Manila Treaty, SEATO, and CENTO, maintaining independence in foreign policy.
3. Nehru’s non-alignment principle, emphasizing peace over military engagement.
4. Nehru’s opposition to John Foster Dulles’ charge of immoral neutrality, stating that India evaluated global issues on merit.
5. Non-alignment, as a struggle for post-colonial independence, was advanced through collective action in international forums like the UN.

The Non-Aligned Movement

Nehru’s efforts culminated in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). This movement aimed to:

1. Promote world peace and nuclear disarmament.
2. Advocate for the peaceful coexistence of nations with diverse ideologies.
3. Oppose any forceful enlistment of newly independent countries into Cold War conflicts.
4. Encourage self-reliance for ex-colonial nations, aiding their recovery from colonialism.

Panch Sheel

In addressing global tensions, Nehru introduced the concept of Panch Sheel, outlining five principles:

1. Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
2. Non-aggression in international relations.
3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
4. Equality and mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful coexistence between countries.

Landmark Events and Initiatives

Several key international moments underlined India’s active role in global diplomacy:

1. 1947 Asian Relations Conference: Promoting Asian independence and solidarity.
2. The Bandung Conference (1955): Leading to resolutions for world peace and nuclear disarmament.
3. The Belgrade Non-Aligned Conference (1961): A culmination of Nehru’s efforts for nuclear disarmament.

Important Note: India’s stance on disarmament was heavily influenced by Nehru’s belief in Gandhian non-violence and the avoidance of nuclear conflict, even at great diplomatic costs.

Economic and Military Diplomacy

India’s non-aligned policy also facilitated economic growth:

1. Building ties with both Western countries and the Soviet Union, ensuring diverse sources of economic aid.
2. Development of public sector industries, with assistance from the Soviet Union and Western powers.
3. Procurement of military equipment from countries as diverse as the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union.

Examples of Key Military Purchases:

• Aircraft like Hunters, Canberras, and MiGs.
• Helicopters, tanks, and trucks from several countries.
• Licensing agreements to produce defense equipment in India.

International Role

India’s non-alignment was tested in international crises such as:

The Korean War

1. India condemned North Korea but abstained from voting on military assistance to South Korea, emphasizing peace over military solutions.
2. Nehru’s intermediary role between Truman and Stalin reflected India’s balanced approach.
3. India’s diplomacy was significant in the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, with an Indian general overseeing the repatriation of prisoners.

Indo-China

1. Nehru’s initiative for a ceasefire in Indo-China averted further international conflict, with India gaining the chairmanship of the International Control Commission.
2. India’s diplomatic efforts prevented further involvement of the US and China in the region.

Suez Canal Crisis

1. India’s proposal for a peaceful resolution to the Suez Canal issue showcased her commitment to non-alignment, rejecting military intervention by Western powers.
2. India’s involvement in the UN peace-keeping force during the crisis further demonstrated her commitment to peaceful conflict resolution.

International Crisis	India’s Role	Outcome
Korean War	Mediator between US and USSR	Neutral Nations Commission chaired by India
Indo-China Conflict	Advocate for ceasefire and peace proposals	Averted military intervention by global powers
Suez Canal Crisis	Proposed diplomatic resolution to nationalization	UN-supervised peace settlement

Relations with Superpowers

United States

India’s relationship with the US was marked by fluctuating tensions, primarily due to divergent perspectives on Cold War issues:

1. India’s recognition of Communist China and advocacy for its seat in the UN strained ties with the US.
2. US military aid to Pakistan for its alliance against the USSR worsened relations.
3. Nehru’s refusal to align with US policies on Goa, Kashmir, and SEATO also caused friction.

However, by the late 1950s, relations improved under Kennedy’s administration, particularly during the 1962 Chinese attack, when India sought US assistance.

Soviet Union

India’s relationship with the Soviet Union grew warmer over time:

1. Initial Soviet skepticism of India’s non-aligned stance gave way to cooperation by the 1950s.
2. The USSR’s support on the Kashmir issue at the UN marked a pivotal moment in Indo-Soviet relations.
3. Extensive military and economic assistance from the USSR enabled India to bolster her defense capabilities and public sector industries.

Key Soviet Contributions:

• The Bhilai steel plant and oil exploration ventures.
• Support during border clashes with China and extensive arms deals.

Relations with Neighbors

Pakistan

India’s relations with Pakistan were fraught with challenges, especially over Kashmir:

1. The accession of Kashmir to India in 1947, followed by Pakistan’s invasion, set the stage for ongoing tensions.
2. Nehru’s decision to take the issue to the UN was criticized, as the Cold War dynamics influenced international mediation.
3. Despite diplomatic efforts, the Kashmir issue remained unresolved, compounded by Pakistan’s alignment with the US in military alliances.

China

Initially, India and China shared friendly relations, governed by the Panch Sheel agreement. However, this deteriorated following:

1. The Tibetan revolt in 1959 and the asylum granted to the Dalai Lama.
2. The 1962 Sino-Indian War, where China attacked India, leading to significant diplomatic fallout.

Important Note: The Chinese attack on India in 1962 deeply impacted Nehru, leading to widespread criticism of his foreign policy and contributing to his eventual decline in health and political standing.

India’s Resilience in Foreign Policy

Despite the 1962 Sino-Indian conflict, Nehru’s foreign policy framework remained significant:

1. Non-alignment ensured India maintained a balanced relationship with both Western and Eastern blocs.
2. Economic and military ties with the Soviet Union continued to grow, helping India recover from the Chinese debacle.
3. The USSR’s neutrality during the Sino-Indian conflict and subsequent support further bolstered Indo-Soviet ties.

Conclusion

Nehru’s foreign policy of non-alignment was not a rigid blueprint but a dynamic framework that allowed India to navigate complex global dynamics. His efforts laid the foundation for India’s position on the global stage, ensuring her voice remained independent amidst the pressures of Cold War politics. Nehru’s vision of Panch Sheel and peaceful coexistence continues to influence global diplomacy, underlining the enduring relevance of his internationalist principles.

Multiple Choice Question:
Which international principle introduced by Nehru emphasized mutual respect, non-aggression, and peaceful coexistence?

A) Non-alignment
B) Panch Sheel
C) UN Charter
D) Commonwealth

Answer: B

Aspect	India’s Policy under Nehru	Outcomes/Relations
Non-alignment	Refusal to join military alliances	Global leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement
Panch Sheel	Peaceful coexistence, mutual respect	Foundation for relations with China
US Relations	Strained by Cold War dynamics	Improved under Kennedy; sought aid in 1962
Soviet Relations	Warmth and cooperation in military & economic fields	Soviet support in UN and Kashmir issue

|
| Pakistan Relations | Conflict over Kashmir | Continued tensions, exacerbated by alliances|
| China Relations | Friendship turned conflict post-1959 | 1962 Sino-Indian War and diplomatic fallout |