Learning Outcomes:
- Understand the complexity of tribal integration in post-independence India.
- Analyze the Nehruvian approach to tribal development.
- Examine the role of legislation and government action in protecting tribal rights.
- Explore the impact of colonialism on tribal communities.
- Investigate the challenges faced by tribal regions in education, land rights, and governance.
The integration of the tribal communities into the Indian nation was a significant challenge due to their diverse cultures, languages, and living conditions. The 1971 Census recorded over 400 tribal communities, constituting nearly 6.9% of India’s population. They were primarily concentrated in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, the Northeast, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Most tribals lived in relative isolation in forest and hill areas, with cultures markedly different from their non-tribal neighbors. Yet, interactions between the two groups had occurred for centuries in most parts of India.
Colonialism transformed the tribal way of life by eroding their isolation through market penetration and interaction with British and princely administrations. The invasion of moneylenders, traders, and middlemen led to:
According to Verrier Elwin, who studied the tribals, merchants, liquor vendors, and swindlers exploited the tribals under British rule, leading to widespread poverty. Missionaries disrupted their cultural practices, further destabilizing their way of life. Colonialism also strained the tribals’ connection to the forest, essential for their livelihood. The colonial government’s forest laws restricted the tribals’ access to forests, thereby depriving them of their traditional means of sustenance.
This triggered tribal uprisings such as the Santhal uprising and the Munda rebellion led by Birsa Munda, with many tribals participating in national and peasant movements in Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
Post-independence, the Indian government’s policy towards the tribals aimed to preserve their social and cultural heritage. Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision shaped this approach, emphasizing the need to instill confidence in the tribals and make them feel part of India. Nehru believed that Indian nationalism could accommodate the uniqueness of tribal communities.
Two approaches dominated the debate on tribal integration:
Nehru rejected both approaches, considering the first as an insult and the second as a risk to their cultural identity. He believed in integrating the tribals into Indian society while preserving their distinct identity.
Nehru’s approach was influenced by Gandhian principles, reflected in tribal ashrams and constructive work initiated since the 1920s.
The Indian Constitution provided several safeguards for tribal communities. Under Article 46, the state was directed to promote their educational and economic interests and protect them from exploitation. Governors of states with tribal populations were given special responsibilities to protect tribal land rights, modify laws, and ensure tribal welfare through:
The state governments enacted laws to prevent land loss and exploitation by moneylenders. Both central and state governments initiated special welfare programs, allocating significant funds for tribal development in the Five-Year Plans, particularly after 1971.
Despite the constitutional safeguards and government efforts, the progress of tribals has been slow. Tribals, except in the Northeast, continue to face poverty, unemployment, landlessness, and indebtedness. The issues stem from:
Sympathetic administrators have often been transferred out of tribal areas due to pressure from traders, moneylenders, and other vested interests.
Some positive outcomes have emerged since 1947:
However, protest movements among tribals, born out of frustration over the lack of development, have occasionally turned violent, drawing national attention to their grievances. These protests have sometimes led to violent state responses, though the movements have raised awareness about tribal conditions.
The tribals of the Northeast had a distinct situation compared to the rest of the country. They constituted the majority in their regions and had limited contact with non-tribals due to British colonial policies. The British kept the plainspeople out of tribal areas, preserving their land but encouraging missionary activities, which introduced modern education, healthcare, and religious conversion. This created:
The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, applying to Assam’s tribal areas, offered self-governance through autonomous district councils, ensuring that tribals could live by their own customs and traditions.
The policy of isolation in the Northeast prevented meaningful contact between tribal communities and the Indian freedom struggle, leading to alienation from Indian nationalism.
The Nagas, isolated by the British, initially resisted integration into India, led by A.Z. Phizo. They demanded independence, leading to a violent rebellion in 1955. The Government of India responded with:
A similar situation unfolded in Mizoram, where secessionist sentiments grew due to dissatisfaction with the Assam government’s handling of famine relief and language policies. The Mizo National Front (MNF), led by Laldenga, launched an armed rebellion in 1966. The rebellion was crushed, but:
The demand for Jharkhand, a tribal state in Bihar, was driven by the concentration of Santhal, Ho, Oraon, and Munda tribes. The Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), under Shibu Soren, revived the demand for a separate state, focusing on economic exploitation and the common plight of tribals and non-tribals alike. Key developments include:
After years of struggle, Jharkhand was formed in 2000, along with Chhattisgarh and Uttarakhand.
The creation of Jharkhand represented the culmination of decades of tribal struggles for autonomy and political representation, highlighting the ongoing relevance of regional and tribal identity politics.
| Aspect | Colonial Era | **
Post-Independence** |
|——————————-|——————————————————|——————————————————|
| Isolation | Maintained by British policies, but eroded over time | Nehru’s policy rejected complete isolation |
| Land Alienation | Rampant due to middlemen and traders | Constitutional safeguards, but enforcement is weak |
| Cultural Preservation | Undermined by missionaries | Promotion of tribal languages and culture encouraged |
| Governance | Colonial rule with minimal tribal participation | Autonomous councils, greater tribal representation |
| Insurgencies | Santhal uprising, Munda rebellion | Naga and Mizo insurgencies, but later integration |
| Economic Exploitation | Severe debt and land loss | Ongoing struggles with modernization and market forces|
MCQ
Which of the following was a key feature of Nehru’s tribal policy?
A. Complete isolation from non-tribals
B. Quick assimilation into mainstream society
C. Integration while preserving distinct identity
D. Encouragement of missionary activities
Answer: C