Caste, Untouchability, Anti-Caste Politics and Strategies

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understanding the origins and structure of the caste system.
2. Recognizing the implications of untouchability and exploitation of lower castes.
3. Analyzing political and legal efforts to counter caste-based discrimination.
4. Evaluating key figures, movements, and legal frameworks influencing anti-caste politics.

The Caste System and Untouchability

The caste system in India, dating back about 2,500 years, has influenced not just Hindus but also Sikhs, Christians, and Muslims. The aspect of hierarchy between high and low castes has legitimated unequal resource access and exploitation of lower castes. The untouchables were denied land ownership, access to temples, and use of common resources like village wells. Interaction between untouchables and higher castes was strictly prohibited.

1. Untouchables performed menial tasks such as scavenging, leatherwork, and agricultural labor.
2. Under the jajmani system, untouchables received a share of produce from landowners for their services.
3. From the mid-19th century, economic changes and employment outside villages began shifting the status of untouchables.
4. Social reformers like Jyotiba Phule and Sri Narayana Guru started questioning caste inequality.
5. Gandhiji integrated the abolition of untouchability into the national movement, organizing campaigns such as the Vaikom and Guruvayur satyagrahas.
6. Gandhiji opposed British efforts to treat the Depressed Classes separately in legislative representation.

The Role of B.R. Ambedkar

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a Mahar and a leading figure for the Depressed Classes, emerged as a central leader in the 1920s. His political strategies and legal efforts were critical to shaping anti-caste politics.

1. In 1932, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact with Gandhiji, securing reserved seats for the Depressed Classes within the general Hindu electorate.
2. By 1936, Ambedkar advocated for conversion to another religion as a solution, initially considering Sikhism.
3. In 1936, he formed the Independent Labour Party, and later, the All India Scheduled Castes Federation in 1942 to focus on SCs.
4. He allied with the colonial government to secure benefits for SCs, eventually serving on the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
5. Ambedkar was instrumental in drafting the Indian Constitution, and as Law Minister, played a crucial role in shaping Article 17, which abolished untouchability.

Important Note:
The Poona Pact of 1932 was a critical moment in Indian history that not only resolved the issue of separate electorates but also led to the constitutional recognition of the Depressed Classes within the broader Hindu electorate.

Caste-Based Legal Initiatives Post-Independence

After independence, the Indian Constitution aimed to eradicate caste injustice and inequality, with specific provisions for the SCs.

1. Article 17 of the Constitution abolished untouchability and made its practice punishable.
2. In 1955, the Untouchability (Offences) Act specified penalties for practicing untouchability.
3. The Protection of Civil Rights Act of 1976 introduced stricter penalties and legal aid for victims.
4. Reservations in legislatures, education, and government jobs were implemented for SCs, with periodic extensions.
5. Ambedkar’s involvement in drafting these constitutional and legal reforms was critical, despite his eventual political differences with the Congress.

Political Movements and Anti-Caste Politics

From Ambedkar’s time through the 1970s and beyond, several anti-caste political movements emerged.

1. After independence, Ambedkar formed the Republican Party, but it splintered into factions due to personality clashes.
2. The Dalit Panthers, founded in 1972, emerged as a radical movement influenced by Ambedkar’s ideology. However, internal splits over ideology weakened the movement.
3. In the 1980s, Kanshi Ram’s Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) became the major political force for Dalit empowerment, using electoral power as its primary strategy.
4. The BSP’s alliance with different political parties, including the BJP and Congress, helped it gain political clout. In 2007, Mayawati led the BSP to a major victory in Uttar Pradesh.

Social and Economic Progress of Dalits

The social and economic condition of SCs has improved, but the reasons are more tied to broader economic changes than just conversion or reservations.

1. Urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural growth have provided more opportunities for low-caste individuals.
2. Government schemes such as employment guarantee programs, land distribution, and subsidies for rural employment have contributed to Dalit self-reliance.
3. Education has been a key driver of social mobility, although literacy rates among SCs remain lower than national averages, especially among women.
4. Dalit self-confidence has increased as they assert their rights, but caste-based discrimination still persists in some areas, particularly rural regions.

Important Note:
Despite conversion to other religions, caste-based discrimination persists across Hindu, Christian, and Muslim communities, illustrating the deep-rooted nature of the caste system in Indian society.

Challenges and Future Directions

Although the status of SCs has improved, challenges remain, especially regarding education, employment, and intra-caste competition for reserved benefits.

1. SCs continue to face inequalities in education, with literacy rates significantly lower than upper castes, particularly in northern India.
2. Intra-SC rivalry has emerged as different SC groups, such as Mahais and Mangs, compete for quotas within quotas.
3. Reservation policies, while beneficial for a few, have led to demands for further sub-quotas among disadvantaged SC groups.
4. Social mobility is most effectively driven by broader economic changes and government initiatives, not solely through caste-based reservations.

The Issue of Backward Castes

The Backward Castes, distinct from SCs, present a different socio-political dynamic. These intermediate castes, often landholders, have not faced the same level of untouchability but have historically suffered from certain ritual disabilities.

1. Backward Castes such as Yadavas and Kurmis have gained political and economic clout through land reforms and representation in government.
2. The Mandal Report in 1990 highlighted the backward status of these castes, leading to reservations for them in government jobs and education.
3. Unlike SCs, the Backward Castes’ demand for reservations has been more about power and resource allocation rather than social justice.
4. The diversity within Backward Castes has led to varying levels of economic power and exploitation of SCs in rural areas.

Important Note:
The success of economic and social policies in uplifting SCs and Backward Castes has varied significantly based on regional factors, land ownership, and access to education, with southern states like Kerala showing more positive results.

The Role of Education and Future Solutions

Education remains the most critical factor in achieving social mobility for SCs and Backward Castes alike.

1. Despite reservations, access to quality education remains a challenge, with literacy rates for SC women particularly low.
2. The future focus must be on universal primary and secondary education, with a special emphasis on female literacy, as seen in regions like Kerala.
3. The emphasis should also be on economic development and employment generation schemes to ensure continued upward mobility for the most disadvantaged sections of society.

MCQ: What was a major factor in the improvement of SC status after independence?
A. Conversion to other religions
B. Reservations in education and jobs
C. Industrialization and urbanization
D. Intra-caste quotas for SC groups

Answer: C