The Struggle for Swaraj: 1927-1947

Learning Outcomes

1. Understand the emergence of socialist ideas within the Congress and the rise of new political forces.
2. Identify key developments in the revolutionary movement and how they impacted India’s struggle for independence.
3. Examine the significance of the Simon Commission and its role in mobilizing Indian nationalism.
4. Analyze the major campaigns of civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi and their political consequences.
5. Explore the relationship between the Congress, peasants, and workers in shaping India’s independence movement.

Emergence of New Forces

In 1927, India witnessed the emergence of socialist ideas as Marxism began spreading rapidly. The left-wing in the Indian National Congress arose under Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. This group expanded its focus beyond fighting imperialism to addressing internal class struggles. Indian youth became increasingly active, forming youth leagues and organizing conferences. Nehru presided over the All-Bengal Conference of Students in 1928, symbolizing the growth of student activism.

1. Socialist and Communist groups emerged, fueled by the success of the Russian Revolution.
2. Dissatisfaction with Gandhian political ideas drove many nationalists towards socialism.
3. M.N. Roy was elected to the leadership of the Communist International, marking a significant milestone for Indian Marxists.
4. The government arrested prominent communists like Muzaffar Ahmed and S.A. Dange during the Kanpur Conspiracy Case in 1924.
5. The Communist Party of India was formed in 1925, aligning itself with the National Congress.

Peasant and Worker Movements also gained momentum, with tenant uprisings in Uttar Pradesh and the Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. In 1928, under Patel’s leadership, peasants launched a No Tax Campaign, achieving significant victories.

Key Worker Strikes in 1928

• Railway workshops in Kharagpur saw a two-month strike.
• South Indian Railway workers went on strike.
• Bombay Textile Mills strike lasted five months and involved 150,000 workers, led by the Communists.

The revolutionary movement revived after the failure of the First Non-Cooperation Movement, with the formation of the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in 1924. This group, initially focused on armed revolution, evolved under Chandra Shekhar Azad into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928.

1. Lala Lajpat Rai’s death in 1928, due to a police lathi-charge, ignited revolutionary fervor.
2. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Azad retaliated by assassinating Saunders, the officer responsible for the charge.
3. The HSRA propagated the need for mass revolution by distributing leaflets and staging symbolic protests, including the famous bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt.

Important Note

The revolutionaries began to adopt socialist principles and aimed to mobilize mass movements rather than rely solely on individual acts of violence.

The Chittagong Uprising

In Bengal, revolutionary activity surged with Surya Sen’s raid on the Chittagong Armoury in April 1930. Women played a significant role, marking a major advance in the movement. The British government responded by arresting and trying revolutionaries in infamous cases, including the Bhagat Singh trial.

Boycott of The Simon Commission

In November 1927, the British government appointed the Simon Commission to propose constitutional reforms. This Commission, consisting solely of British members, sparked outrage among Indians, who saw it as a violation of the principle of self-determination.

1. At the 1927 Madras session, the Congress decided to boycott the Commission at every stage.
2. The Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha also supported the boycott.
3. In response to the Commission, Indian leaders united to draft an alternative constitutional scheme, leading to the Nehru Report in August 1928, which failed to unite all factions due to communal objections.

The arrival of the Simon Commission in India provoked a wave of protests. On 3 February 1928, the Commission was greeted with hartals and black-flag demonstrations, united under the slogan “Simon Go Back”. These demonstrations resulted in police repression, but they also signaled a turning point in the national movement.

Poorna Swaraj and Civil Disobedience

The Lahore session of the Congress in December 1929, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal. On 31 December 1929, the tricolor flag of independence was hoisted, and 26 January 1930 was designated as Independence Day, to be observed annually.

1. The Congress decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement, with the specifics left to Gandhi’s discretion.
2. On 12 March 1930, Gandhi commenced the Dandi March, covering 375 km and breaking the salt law at Dandi on 6 April 1930.

This act ignited widespread defiance of British laws, including salt laws, forest laws, and tax refusal. The movement drew massive participation, including thousands of women, and spread across the country, from Peshawar to Nagaland. The Khudai Khidmatgars, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, and the Garhwali soldiers in Peshawar, who refused to fire on demonstrators, became symbols of resistance.

Important Note

Nationalism had penetrated the Indian army, as seen in the refusal of Garhwali soldiers to fire on unarmed demonstrators during the civil disobedience movement.

Government Repression and Round Table Conferences

The British response was ruthless. Over 90,000 satyagrahis were imprisoned, and the Congress was declared illegal. In 1930, the British convened the First Round Table Conference, which the Congress boycotted. However, Gandhi negotiated the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in March 1931, leading to the temporary suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

1. Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in September 1931, but the British refused to concede immediate freedom.
2. The Congress resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1932, but it was ruthlessly crushed under the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon.

By 1934, the movement had been withdrawn. Despite this, the Congress ministries that came to power in 1937 under the Government of India Act, 1935 continued to lay the groundwork for the final phase of India’s freedom struggle.

The Rise of Socialist Ideas in the 1930s

The 1930s saw the rapid spread of socialist ideas throughout India. The Great Depression of 1929 discredited capitalism and drew attention to socialism and economic planning. Inspired by the Soviet Union’s success, many, especially young workers and peasants, adopted Marxist ideas.

Jawaharlal Nehru, during this period, emerged as a staunch advocate of socialism. In his 1936 presidential address to the Lucknow Congress, he emphasized the need for political and economic emancipation of the masses.

1. Socialism was seen as the solution to India’s social and economic ills.
2. The Karachi session of 1931 passed a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy, calling for economic freedom for the masses.
3. The 1936 Election Manifesto promised radical agrarian reforms, workers’ rights, and an end to landlordism.

Table: Key Differences Between Congress and Communal Politics in the 1930s

World Affairs and Congress

The Congress, from its inception, opposed the use of Indian resources to further British imperialist interests. By the 1930s, this opposition extended to supporting national movements in Asia and Africa.

1. The League Against Imperialism was established in 1927, with Nehru representing the Congress.
2. The Congress strongly condemned fascism, supporting the Spanish Republic, China, and other nations facing fascist aggression.
   3. A medical mission was sent to China in 1938 to support its resistance against Japan.

Communalism and the Two-Nation Theory

In the late 1930s, communalism reared its head as the Muslim League under Jinnah opposed the Congress, accusing it of representing only Hindus. The two-nation theory began to take shape, ultimately leading to the demand for Pakistan in 1940.

1. Communalism was fueled by the Hindu Mahasabha’s corresponding demand for Hindu nationalism.
2. Both communal groups sought British support, reinforcing their political agendas.

Despite efforts by Congress leaders to negotiate with Jinnah, communalism could not be appeased. The Congress’s failure to fully counter communalism allowed the partition of India in 1947.

National Movement During World War II

The outbreak of World War II in 1939 presented new challenges. While the Congress sympathized with democracy, it refused to support the British war effort unless India was granted immediate freedom.

1. The Cripps Mission in 1942 attempted to negotiate, but it failed as the British refused to cede power.
2. Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, urging the British to leave India. The movement saw widespread civil disobedience, strikes, and even violent protests.

The British crushed the revolt, but the spirit of resistance remained strong, with movements like the Indian National Army (INA), led by Subhas Chandra Bose, keeping the struggle alive.

The Endgame: Post-War Struggle

As World War II ended in 1945, India’s freedom struggle entered its final phase. The INA trials galvanized the Indian public, leading to mass protests. The naval mutiny in 1946 further demonstrated the weakening hold of British authority in India.

The Cabinet Mission of 1946 proposed a federal solution, but with the rise of communal tensions, the partition of India became inevitable. In August 1947, India and Pakistan were granted independence.

MCQ
Who led the Chittagong Armoury Raid in 1930?
a) Bhagat Singh b) Subhas Chandra Bose c) Surya Sen d) M.N. Roy
Answer: c) Surya Sen

Comparison of Key Movements (1927-1947)