The Struggle for Swaraj: 1919-1927

Learning Outcomes

1. Understand the causes leading to mass movements for Indian independence post-1919.
2. Analyze the impact of World War I on India’s economy and political aspirations.
3. Examine the role of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and the Rowlatt Act in shaping political movements.
4. Evaluate Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership and the introduction of Satyagraha as a non-violent resistance strategy.
5. Recognize the importance of Hindu-Muslim unity and the Khilafat Movement in fostering national integration.

Economic and Political Context Post-World War I

1. Impact of World War I on Indian Society: By 1919, nationalism was at its peak due to the political aspirations that had gathered momentum during World War I (1914-1918). The Indian populace expected significant political concessions post-war. However, the economic downturn, including rising unemployment, high prices, and closure of industries, worsened the situation. Indian soldiers returning victorious from war further ignited the nationalist spirit in rural areas, while urban unemployment created a politically volatile atmosphere.
2. Nationalist Sentiments: The peasants, artisans, urban educated classes, and workers faced growing economic hardships, compounded by natural calamities like droughts and epidemics. These conditions fostered a readiness for mass political struggle.

International and Domestic Influences on Nationalism

1. International Influence: Globally, nationalist sentiments in Asia and Africa were on the rise due to the hypocrisy of the victorious Allied powers in the post-war peace settlements. The promises of self-determination were betrayed, causing widespread disillusionment. The Russian Revolution of 1917 inspired colonial nations by showcasing the power of the common people to overthrow oppressive regimes.
2. Erosion of Colonial Prestige: The Russian Revolution, alongside wartime propaganda revealing the brutal colonial records of European powers, diminished the mystique of white racial superiority. This led to a growing belief among colonized nations, including India, that imperialism could be challenged and defeated.

Important Note: The Russian Revolution was a turning point for global nationalist movements, showcasing how a united working class could overthrow imperial regimes, thus influencing anti-colonial movements worldwide.

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Nationalist Reactions

1. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): Under the Government of India Act 1919, the Provincial Legislative Councils were expanded, and the Dyarchy system was introduced. However, the reforms were widely regarded as insufficient and deceptive. The Indian National Congress in 1918, under Hasan Imam’s presidency, condemned these reforms as “disappointing and unsatisfactory.”
2. Provincial Reforms and their Limitations: The Dyarchy separated government subjects into “reserved” (under the Governor) and “transferred” (under ministers), but the system provided minimal control to elected representatives. The central legislature, meanwhile, had limited powers, and voting rights were severely restricted, alienating large sections of the populace.

The Rowlatt Act and Its Consequences

1. The Rowlatt Act of 1919: While offering token constitutional reforms, the British government simultaneously implemented the Rowlatt Act, giving the authorities unrestricted powers to detain individuals without trial, overriding principles of rule of law. This Act sparked widespread agitation among Indians.
2. Mahatma Gandhi’s Emergence as a National Leader: The discontent with the Rowlatt Act led to the rise of Mahatma Gandhi, who introduced the methods of non-cooperation and Satyagraha in India. His leadership marked a significant shift in the nationalist movement by mobilizing peasants, workers, and the urban poor, thereby ensuring mass participation in the struggle for independence.

Gandhi’s Leadership and Satyagraha

1. Mahatma Gandhi’s Ideology: Gandhi’s philosophy of Satyagraha, based on truth and non-violence, became the core of the Indian independence movement. He urged individuals to resist oppression through non-violent disobedience and showed an understanding of Indian peasants’ struggles, leading to mass mobilization.
2. Champaran and Ahmedabad Satyagrahas: Gandhi’s first successful experiment with Satyagraha in Champaran (1917) against the exploitation of indigo planters demonstrated the power of civil disobedience. Later, during the Ahmedabad Mill Strike in 1918, Gandhi’s tactics of fasting and peaceful resistance earned him the support of the working class, reinforcing his status as a national leader.

Important Note: Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violence was rooted in strength and courage. He believed that non-violence was not for the weak, but for the brave, emphasizing that even violence was preferable to cowardice when defending one’s honor.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Its Aftermath

1. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): On April 13, 1919, in Amritsar, General Dyer’s troops fired upon a peaceful assembly of thousands of Indians, killing and injuring hundreds. This event marked a turning point in the Indian struggle, exposing the brutal face of British imperialism and leading to nationwide outrage.
2. Reactions to the Massacre: The massacre, followed by martial law in Punjab, shocked the nation. Prominent Indian leaders, including Rabindranath Tagore, expressed their protest by renouncing British honors, and the event galvanized nationalist sentiments across India.

The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements

1. Khilafat Movement: The Khilafat movement (1919-1924), spearheaded by Muslim leaders like the Ali Brothers, arose in protest against the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire by the British and its allies. Gandhi saw the Khilafat movement as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims against British rule, viewing it as a platform to forge national unity.
2. Non-Cooperation Movement: In response to the Punjab wrongs and Khilafat grievances, Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920. Indians were urged to boycott British institutions, including schools, colleges, courts, and foreign goods, and to embrace self-reliance through Khadi. Non-Cooperation Movement Khilafat Movement Nationwide movement for Swaraj Focused on preserving the Caliphate Boycott of British institutions and goods Led by Muslim leaders but supported by Congress United Hindus and Muslims Pushed forward Hindu-Muslim unity in the freedom struggle

Decline of the Non-Cooperation Movement and Gandhi’s Imprisonment

1. End of Non-Cooperation: The movement witnessed mass participation, including peasants, workers, and students. However, the Chauri Chaura incident of 1922, where police officers were killed by agitated protestors, forced Gandhi to suspend the movement, fearing a descent into violence. This decision led to disappointment among nationalists but preserved the non-violent character of the struggle.
2. Gandhi’s Imprisonment (1922): Following the suspension of the movement, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years of imprisonment. In his famous statement during the trial, Gandhi elaborated on his disillusionment with British rule and justified his campaign of non-cooperation.

The Swarajist Party and Aftermath

1. Formation of the Swarajist Party: After the Non-Cooperation Movement was suspended, leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swarajist Party in 1922. They aimed to enter legislative councils, obstruct the government’s functioning, and expose its policies, while the no-changers like Vallabhbhai Patel focused on grassroots work.
2. Communalism and Political Setbacks: The Swarajist Party faced setbacks as communal tensions rose, partly fueled by the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha. The unity achieved during the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements began to weaken due to communalist politics.

Important Note: Despite internal differences and

communal challenges, the nationalist movement continued to evolve, driven by the resolve to achieve Swaraj.

Nationalist Resurgence and the Simon Commission

1. Rejection of Simon Commission: The appointment of the Simon Commission in 1927, composed entirely of British members, sparked nationwide protests. Indians viewed it as another betrayal of their aspirations for self-rule.
2. Unity in Opposition: Nationalist forces, including Congress, Muslim leaders, and regional groups, came together to reject the Simon Commission, demanding complete self-governance and highlighting the deep-rooted desire for Swaraj.

MCQ:
Which event marked the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement?

A) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
B) Chauri Chaura incident
C) The formation of the Swarajist Party
D) Gandhi’s imprisonment
Answer: B) Chauri Chaura incident

This phase of India’s struggle for Swaraj (1919-1927) reflects the growing unity and resolve among diverse sections of society to achieve independence, driven by the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Khilafat agitation, and various mass movements across the country.

Key Comparison of Movements (Table Format)