Understand the emergence of Indian national consciousness.
Identify the consequences of foreign domination in India.
Examine the role of different social classes in the nationalist movement.
Analyze the unification of India under British rule.
Discuss the impact of Western thought and education on Indian nationalism.
Consequence of Foreign Domination
Modern Indian nationalism developed as a response to foreign domination. British rule not only exploited India’s resources but also served as a catalyst for national sentiment. Several factors contributed to the growth of this movement:
Clash of Interests: British rule primarily served British interests, often at the expense of Indian welfare. This realization gradually dawned on Indians, leading to widespread resentment.
Economic Backwardness: British policies hindered India’s economic development, making their rule the primary cause of the nation’s stagnation.
Social Discontent: Various sections of society, including peasants, artisans, workers, and the intelligentsia, suffered under British rule. Each group had specific grievances, such as:
Peasants were heavily taxed and oppressed by landlords, with no protection from the government.
Artisans faced ruin due to foreign competition, with no government support for rehabilitation.
Workers in factories and plantations found that the government sided with capitalists, particularly foreign ones.
Educated Indians, who initially supported British rule, grew disillusioned as they realized that British policies were designed to keep India underdeveloped.
Important Note: The rising Indian capitalist class, though initially slow in developing a national consciousness, eventually recognized that their growth was being stunted by British policies favoring foreign capitalists.
Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country
Nationalist sentiments flourished due to the administrative and economic unification brought about by British rule:
Administrative Unification: The British introduced a uniform system of government across India, which helped in administratively unifying the country.
Economic Integration: The destruction of local economies and the rise of all-India trade and industries interlinked the fates of people across different regions.
Infrastructure: Railways, telegraphs, and a unified postal system facilitated communication and contact among the Indian people, fostering a sense of unity.
This unification, combined with the common oppression under British rule, acted as a unifying factor, encouraging a collective national identity.
Western Thought and Education
The spread of Western education played a crucial role in shaping modern Indian nationalism:
Rational and Secular Outlook: Educated Indians adopted a modern, rational, secular, and democratic outlook, influenced by Western thinkers like Rousseau and John Stuart Mill.
National Heroes: European nationalist movements and figures like Mazzini and Garibaldi inspired Indian leaders.
Humiliation of Subjugation: Educated Indians were among the first to feel the humiliation of foreign subjugation, leading them to envision a modern, united, and prosperous India.
However, it is important to note that modern education alone did not create the national movement. It merely provided the tools for educated Indians to lead the movement and give it a democratic and modern direction.
The Role of The Press and Literature
The press and literature were instrumental in spreading nationalist ideas:
Nationalist Newspapers: Numerous newspapers criticized official policies, presented the Indian perspective, and promoted ideas like self-government and industrialization.
National Literature: Novels, essays, and patriotic poetry by writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Rabindranath Tagore played a significant role in arousing national consciousness.
These mediums allowed nationalist workers across the country to exchange views and coordinate their efforts, creating an all-India consciousness.
Important Note: The English language, while uniting educated Indians from different regions, also created a barrier between the educated urban population and the rural masses. This divide was recognized by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated for the use of Indian languages in education.
Rediscovery of India’s Past
Nationalist leaders sought to counter British propaganda by rediscovering and promoting India’s cultural heritage:
Cultural Pride: Leaders highlighted India’s rich cultural history, pointing to achievements in art, literature, philosophy, and politics.
Countering British Propaganda: This effort was partly in response to British claims that Indians were unfit for self-government due to their supposedly degraded culture.
However, some nationalists went to the extreme, glorifying India’s past uncritically, which led to the growth of communal sentiments among Hindus and Muslims.
Racial Arrogance of The Rulers
Racial arrogance by the British played a significant role in the growth of national sentiments:
Racial Discrimination: Indians were treated as inferior, barred from European clubs, and often not allowed to share train compartments with Europeans.
Judicial Injustice: Courts often favored Englishmen over Indians, exacerbating the sense of national humiliation.
These experiences of discrimination and injustice united Indians across different social strata against the common oppressor.
Predecessors of The Indian National Congress
Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, several organizations laid the groundwork for a national movement:
Raja Rammohun Roy: Initiated political reforms and started public associations dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements.
Dadabhai Naoroji: Founded the East India Association in 1866 to discuss Indian issues and influence British public opinion.
Indian Association of Calcutta: Founded by Surendranath Banerjea and others in 1876, it aimed to create public opinion on political issues and unite the Indian people under a common political program.
Regional Organizations: Other notable organizations included the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Madras Mahajan Sabha, and Bombay Presidency Association.
These organizations, though limited in scope, served as precursors to the INC and contributed to the growing nationalist sentiment.
The Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 by A.O. Hume and prominent Indian leaders:
Aims: The INC aimed to promote national unity, formulate popular demands, and train public opinion.
Role of Hume: While some believed Hume saw the Congress as a “safety valve” to prevent unrest, the INC’s formation primarily reflected the political consciousness of Indians.
The INC played a pivotal role in organizing the national movement and eventually became the main platform for India’s struggle for independence.
The Programme and Activities of The Early Nationalists
Early nationalists focused on several key areas:
Arousing National Sentiment: Their primary task was to create public interest in political issues and unite Indians under a common cause.
Economic Critique of Imperialism: They condemned British economic policies that kept India impoverished and advocated for swadeshi (use of Indian goods) and the boycott of British goods.
Constitutional Reforms: Initially, they demanded moderate reforms like the expansion of legislative councils, but later, they pushed for self-government within the British Empire.
Administrative Reforms: They called for Indianization of the civil services, separation of judicial and executive powers, and improved welfare activities, such as education and healthcare.
The early nationalists laid the groundwork for later, more militant phases of the national movement.
Table: Comparison of Early Nationalist Approaches
Aspect
Moderate Nationalists
Radical Nationalists
Political Approach
Constitutional agitation within the law
Direct action and mass mobilization
Involvement of Masses
Limited involvement of educated elite
Broader mass involvement
View on British Rule
Reform British rule for India’s benefit
End British rule entirely
Key Figures
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai
Focus on Economic Issues
Critique of British economic policies
Advocacy for Swadeshi and boycott
Defence of Civil Rights
Nationalists defended civil rights, including freedoms of speech, the press, thought, and association. These democratic ideas became integral to the nationalist movement, culminating in incidents like the imprisonment of B.G. Tilak, which galvanized public support.
Methods of Political Work
The Moderates led the national movement up to 1905, focusing on:
Constitutional Agitation: They believed in working within the law, building public opinion, and gradually persuading the British government to introduce reforms.
Educating Public Opinion: Their petitions and memorials, though addressed to the government, were meant to educate the Indian populace on political issues.
Despite their cautious approach, the Moderates were genuine patriots who believed that gradual reforms would eventually lead to self-government.
Role of The Masses
A significant limitation of the early national movement was its narrow social base. The leaders lacked faith in the masses, believing that India was not yet ready for a mass struggle. This led to a more moderate political stance, but it also meant that the early movement did not fully engage with the broader population.
Attitude of The Government
The British government was hostile towards the rising nationalist movement, viewing the INC as a potential threat. Officials like Dufferin and Curzon sought to undermine the INC through divide and rule tactics and by branding nationalist leaders as seditious. Despite these efforts, the movement continued to grow, driven by the collective discontent of the Indian people.
Evaluation of The Early National Movement
While the early nationalist movement faced criticism for not achieving significant immediate successes, its long-term impact was profound:
National Awakening: It fostered a sense of national identity and unity among Indians.
Economic Critique: The early nationalists exposed the exploitative nature of British imperialism, laying the foundation for future economic and political struggles.
Political Education: The movement popularized ideas of democracy, civil liberties, and nationalism, which would later become central to the independence struggle.
Despite its limitations, the early national movement laid the groundwork for the more vigorous and widespread nationalist activities that followed.
MCQ:
Which organization is considered the first organized expression of the Indian national movement on an all-India scale?
A) Indian Association of Calcutta B) East India Association C) Indian National Congress D) Poona Sarvajanik Sabha