Social and Cultural Awakening in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the impact of Western culture on nineteenth-century India.
2. Recognize the role of internal weaknesses in India’s colonization.
3. Identify key figures and their contributions to social and religious reforms.

Immense intellectual and cultural stirrings characterized nineteenth-century India. The influence of modern Western culture and the consciousness of defeat by a foreign power led to a new awakening. Indians began to realize that internal weaknesses in their social structure and culture allowed a small group of foreigners to colonize their vast country. This realization prompted thoughtful Indians to analyze their society’s strengths and weaknesses, seeking ways to address the latter. While many Indians resisted Western influence, holding onto traditional ideas, others believed that incorporating elements of modern Western thought, particularly modern science, reason, and humanism, was crucial for societal regeneration. Despite differences in the nature and extent of reforms, nearly all intellectuals of the nineteenth century agreed on the urgent need for social and religious reform.

Rammohun Roy

The central figure in this awakening was Rammohun Roy, regarded as the first great leader of modern India. Motivated by deep love for his people and country, he dedicated his life to the social, religious, intellectual, and political regeneration of Indian society. Rammohun was deeply distressed by the stagnation and corruption in Indian society, which was dominated by caste and convention. Religion was rife with superstitions and exploited by corrupt priests, while the upper classes were selfish, prioritizing their narrow interests over social welfare.

1. Synthesis of Eastern and Western Thought: Rammohun Roy was a scholar who mastered over a dozen languages and synthesized Eastern and Western thought. He studied Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and Western literature and learned Greek and Hebrew to study the Bible in its original languages. His notable work, Gift to Monotheists (1809), argued for the worship of a single God.
2. Opposition to Social Evils: Settling in Calcutta in 1814, he formed the Atmiya Sabha and began a persistent struggle against religious and social evils, such as idol worship, caste rigidity, and meaningless rituals. He believed that the Vedanta philosophy was grounded in reason and argued that human reason should be the ultimate test of any doctrine, whether Eastern or Western.
3. Rationalism in Religion: Rammohun applied rationalism not only to Hinduism but also to Christianity, much to the disappointment of missionaries who hoped he would convert. In his work Precepts of Jesus (1820), he separated the moral teachings of Christ from miracle stories, promoting the integration of these moral teachings into Hinduism.
4. Intellectual and Creative Synthesis: He advocated for an intellectual and creative synthesis of Eastern and Western thought, resisting the mere imitation of Western culture. His efforts led to the founding of the Brahma Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj), which aimed to purify Hinduism and preach monotheism, emphasizing human dignity and opposing idolatry.

Important Note:
Rammohun Roy’s rationalism extended to all religions, reflecting his belief in universal brotherhood and the commonality of religious teachings.

Contributions to Social Reform

Rammohun Roy was a multifaceted reformer who touched nearly every aspect of nation-building.

1. Crusade Against Sati: His most famous campaign was against the inhumane practice of sati. Beginning in 1818, he worked tirelessly to rouse public opinion, using religious texts and appeals to reason and compassion to advocate against this practice. He even visited burning ghats to dissuade families from forcing widows into self-immolation.
2. Advocate for Women’s Rights: Roy was a strong advocate for women’s rights, condemning the subjugation of women and challenging the prevailing notions of their intellectual and moral inferiority. He opposed polygamy, demanded women’s right to inheritance, and supported the improvement of their social status through education.
3. Promoter of Modern Education: He was also an early promoter of modern education. In 1817, he enthusiastically supported David Hare in founding the Hindu College and maintained an English school at his own expense. In 1825, he established the Vedanta College, offering courses in both Indian and Western sciences.
4. Journalism and Public Agitation: Rammohun was a pioneer of Indian journalism, using his publications to spread knowledge, educate public opinion, and advocate for political and social reforms. He was also a trailblazer in public agitation on political issues, championing the rights of peasants and opposing oppressive zamindari practices.

Important Note:
Rammohun Roy faced severe opposition from orthodox elements for his reformist views, yet he remained steadfast in his mission, even at great personal cost.

Derozio and Young Bengal

A more radical intellectual trend emerged in Bengal during the late 1820s and 1830s, known as the Young Bengal movement. Its leader was Henry Vivian Derozio, a young Anglo-Indian who taught at Hindu College from 1826 to 1831. Derozio was a brilliant teacher who inspired his students to think rationally, question authority, and embrace ideals of liberty and equality.

1. Radical Views and Patriotism: The Derozians, as his followers were known, were fiery patriots who passionately criticized outdated customs and advocated for women’s rights and education. However, their radical ideas did not find widespread support due to the social conditions of the time.
2. Public Agitation and Journalism: Despite their limited success, the Derozians continued Rammohun’s legacy of educating the public on social, economic, and political issues through newspapers, pamphlets, and public associations.

Debendranath Tagore and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

The Brahmo Samaj continued to exist but lacked vitality until it was revitalized by Debendranath Tagore in 1839. Tagore founded the Tatvabodhini Sabha to propagate Rammohun Roy’s ideas and promote a rational outlook among Bengal’s intellectuals. The Sabha attracted prominent thinkers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, who dedicated his life to social reform.

1. Vidyasagar’s Reforms: Vidyasagar was a champion of women’s rights, campaigning for widow remarriage and against child marriage and polygamy. He organized girls’ schools and was a pioneer in promoting higher education for women.
2. Educational Contributions: He also reformed Sanskrit education, breaking the monopoly of Brahmins and incorporating Western thought into the curriculum. His Bengali primer remains a cornerstone of Bengali education today.

Pioneers of Reform in Western India

The impact of Western ideas was felt later in Western India, where reformers like Bal Shastri Jambekar and Jotiba Phule emerged as pioneers.

1. Bal Shastri Jambekar: One of the first reformers in Bombay, Jambekar attacked Brahmanical orthodoxy and advocated for social reforms through his weekly publication, Darpan.
2. Jotiba Phule: A champion for the rights of non-Brahmins and untouchables, Phule fought against caste domination and promoted widow remarriage and women’s education.

Legacy of the Reformers

The significance of the nineteenth-century reformers lies not in their numbers but in their role as trendsetters. Their thought and activities had a decisive impact on the making of modern India, with their efforts primarily disseminated through the Indian language press and literature. Their legacy is evident in the enduring reforms and social changes they initiated.

MCQ:
What was one of the key contributions of Rammohun Roy to Indian society?

• A) Promotion of caste-based divisions
• B) Advocacy for idolatry
• C) Campaign against the practice of sati
• D) Support for British colonial rule

Answer: C) Campaign against the practice of sati