Administrative Organisation and Social and Cultural Policy

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the structure and evolution of the British administrative system in India.
2. Recognize the impact of British policies on Indian society and culture.
3. Analyze the limitations and contradictions in British efforts to modernize India.
4. Explore the role of the Civil Service, Army, and Police in maintaining British control.

The British administration in India was primarily structured around three pillars: the Civil Service, the Army, and the Police. These institutions were essential for maintaining British rule and ensuring that British economic interests were safeguarded. Initially, the East India Company allowed Indians to manage local governance while limiting their role to supervision. However, the inefficacy of this approach led the Company to directly control key administrative aspects under leaders like Warren Hastings and Cornwallis.

Civil Services

1. The Civil Service, established by Lord Cornwallis, aimed to curtail corruption by enforcing strict rules against private trade and bribes while offering high salaries to officials. For instance, a district Collector received Rs 1,500 per month plus a commission.
2. Promotion by seniority was implemented to ensure independence from external influences, with the East India College at Haileybury eventually replacing the College of Fort William for training civil servants.
3. Indians were systematically excluded from higher posts, a policy justified by British officials’ mistrust in Indian abilities and integrity. Notably, John Shore and Charles Grant expressed deep contempt for Indian officials, which influenced administrative practices.

Important Note:
The British systematically excluded Indians from higher administrative positions to consolidate control and preserve the lucrative appointments for their own citizens.

Army

The British Army in India was crucial for both internal and external security. Indian soldiers comprised the majority of the army, with British officers occupying all superior ranks. This structure was necessary to maintain control over the Indian soldiers and prevent any potential insurrection.

1. Key functions of the Army included:

• Conquest of Indian territories.
• Defense against foreign rivals.
• Protection against internal revolts.
• Expansion of British influence in Asia and Africa.

1. The Indian soldiers, while loyal, were kept under strict control by British officers and supplemented by a smaller contingent of British troops.

Police

Lord Cornwallis also played a pivotal role in establishing the modern police force in India. The police, modeled on an old Indian system, was created to maintain law and order, and Indians were placed in subordinate roles such as darogas.

1. Police structure:

• Thanas (circles) headed by darogas, with a District Superintendent at the top.
• Village-watchmen continued to perform basic policing duties.

1. The police force was effective in reducing major crimes but was notorious for its oppressive behavior towards ordinary Indians. As observed by William Bentinck, the police often acted more like predators than protectors.

Important Note:
The British police in India often committed atrocities, functioning more as an instrument of oppression than of protection, contributing to widespread resentment among the Indian population.

Judicial Organisation

The British introduced a new judicial system with a hierarchy of civil and criminal courts. This system, largely established by Cornwallis, was designed to dispense justice in a manner that aligned with British interests.

1. Diwani Adalat (civil court) at the district level was presided over by a District Judge, with further appeals allowed to the Provincial Courts of Civil Appeal and the Sadar Diwani Adalat.
2. Muslim Criminal Law was applied in a modified form in criminal courts, with a gradual shift towards man-made laws codified by the British, leading to the eventual establishment of the Indian Penal Code.
3. The Rule of Law: The British introduced the concept of rule of law, theoretically ensuring that administration was carried out according to established laws rather than personal whims. However, in practice, bureaucracy often enjoyed significant arbitrary powers.

Social and Cultural Policy

The British followed a policy of non-interference in Indian social and cultural life until 1813, after which they began actively transforming Indian society to better serve British interests.

1. The Industrial Revolution and rising industrial capitalism in Britain necessitated the partial transformation of Indian society, shifting the old methods of governance to ones that would create a market for British goods.
2. Rationalism, Humanism, and the Doctrine of Progress: These were the three key elements of new European thought influencing British policy in India. They advocated for change based on reason, respect for human beings, and the belief in societal progress.

However, there was a clash between the conservative and radical attitudes within British administration:

1. Conservatives like Warren Hastings and Munro believed in making minimal changes, respecting Indian traditions, and avoiding rapid innovations that could provoke backlash.
2. Radicals sought to apply Western ideas to India, advocating for modernization and the introduction of Western education, science, and rational thought.

Humanitarian Measures and Modern Education

Humanitarian efforts by the British included the abolition of sati in 1829 and the prohibition of female infanticide, though these measures were minimal and did not address the broader societal issues.

1. The British were more successful in introducing modern education, although their motives were largely driven by the need for a cheap supply of educated Indians to fill subordinate administrative roles.
2. The Charter Act of 1813 was the first step towards modern education, but real efforts began after Lord Macaulay’s minute in 1835, which established English as the medium of instruction and prioritized Western education.
3. Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 was a significant milestone, urging the spread of education to the masses, although implementation remained limited.

MCQ:
What was a major reason behind the British emphasis on modern education in India?
Answer: To create a class of educated Indians who could assist in the administration and serve as intermediaries between the British and the Indian populace.

Key Comparisons in British Policies and Their Impact on India