Indian sociology emerged as an academic discipline under unique conditions. Unlike its Western counterpart, which developed to understand modernity, Indian sociology had to grapple with the reality of colonial subjugation and the coexistence of an ancient civilization alongside “primitive” societies. As India approached independence, questions emerged regarding how sociology would function in a sovereign, democratic India, undergoing planned development. Early Indian sociologists not only had to seek answers to these pressing questions but also had to formulate new ones.
Learning Outcomes
- Understand the contributions of pioneering Indian sociologists.
- Learn how sociology evolved in India, under colonialism and post-independence.
- Examine debates on caste, race, and tribal societies.
- Gain insight into concepts like tradition, modernity, and change in Indian society.
1. L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer (1861–1937): Ananthakrishna Iyer began his career as a clerk and schoolteacher before being invited to assist with an ethnographic survey of Cochin in 1902. Despite lacking formal training, his voluntary ethnographic work earned international recognition. He later lectured at the University of Madras and played a key role in establishing India’s first post-graduate anthropology department at Calcutta University. His recognition included an honorary doctorate from a German university and national titles like Rao Bahadur.
2. Sarat Chandra Roy (1871–1942): Roy, a lawyer by profession, practiced in Ranchi, where he developed an interest in tribal societies due to his professional engagement with tribal law. His detailed fieldwork among tribal communities in the Chhotanagpur region led to over 100 academic publications. Roy was instrumental in founding the journal Man in India, still published today.
1. G.S. Ghurye (1893–1983): Ghurye is considered the founder of institutionalized sociology in India. He headed the first post-graduate sociology department at Bombay University for 35 years. Ghurye’s legacy includes founding the Indian Sociological Society and its journal, Sociological Bulletin. His extensive research covered various topics, including caste, kinship, tribes, and the sociology of conflict and integration.
2. D.P. Mukerji (1894–1961): Mukerji, known as D.P., was a renowned figure at Lucknow University and part of its famous trinity, alongside Radhakamal Mukerjee and D.N. Majumdar. D.P. was deeply influenced by Marxism but maintained a critical stance towards it. His works explored topics like Indian music, tradition, and modernity, highlighting the need for sociologists to be rooted in the Indian social system.
Diffusionism: A perspective in anthropology that attributes cultural development to the borrowing of traits from other cultures, heavily influencing early Indian sociologists.
1. Caste and Race in India: Ghurye’s doctoral work, later published as Caste and Race in India (1932), critiqued the then-dominant theories linking race and caste. He critiqued Herbert Risley’s racial theory, which suggested that caste originated from race, pointing out that racial mixing had long been happening, especially outside northern India.
2. Definition of Caste: Ghurye defined caste as having six distinct features:
3. Tribal Societies: Ghurye’s writings on tribal societies were highly influential, particularly his debates with Verrier Elwin. He believed that tribes should not be treated as isolated cultures but rather as backward Hindus who had been interacting with mainstream society for centuries.
Important Concept: Ghurye emphasized that tribal groups in India were not isolated “primitive” communities as claimed by British anthropologists. He argued that they were in various stages of integration with mainstream Hindu society.
1. Tradition and Modernity: Mukerji argued that Indian society is primarily oriented toward group action rather than individualism. Indian sociologists, he asserted, must be grounded in Indian tradition, understanding the social system from within. Mukerji emphasized the importance of studying both high and low cultures, including languages like Sanskrit and regional dialects.
2. Tradition as a Dynamic Force: Mukerji saw tradition not as static but as living, capable of evolving by incorporating new elements while retaining links to the past. He identified three principles of change in Indian society:
Important Note: Mukerji believed that the concept of tradition should neither be blindly worshiped nor completely rejected. It must evolve by integrating contemporary insights while retaining its core essence.
1. The Social Background of Indian Nationalism: Desai’s seminal work provided a Marxist analysis of Indian nationalism, examining the economic processes underlying British colonialism. This work gained widespread recognition and remains a cornerstone of Indian sociological literature.
2. Marxist Theory of the State: Desai critiqued the welfare state, arguing that capitalist states, even in developed countries, fail to deliver social security and equality. He highlighted the contradiction between capitalist profit motives and the needs of society. Desai believed that genuine socialism must uphold democracy and political liberties, even in communist states.
| Sociologist | Key Contributions | Areas of Focus |
|---|---|---|
| G.S. Ghurye | Defined caste, critiqued race theories, studied tribes | Caste, tribes, kinship, religion |
| D.P. Mukerji | Explored tradition and modernity, influenced by Marxism | Tradition, Indian culture, social change |
| A.R. Desai | Marxist analysis of nationalism and critique of the welfare state | State, nationalism, rural sociology |
| M.N. Srinivas | Developed village studies, popularized dominant caste concept | Village society, caste, social change |
1. The Indian Village: M.N. Srinivas is best known for his work on the Indian village. He conducted extensive fieldwork and emphasized the importance of ethnographic research. His studies challenged the British view of Indian villages as self-sufficient republics, demonstrating that villages were deeply embedded in regional social, economic, and political networks.
2. Dominant Caste: Srinivas introduced the concept of dominant caste, explaining how a caste could hold economic and political power in a village despite not being the highest in the traditional hierarchy.
Dominant Caste: A caste becomes dominant not by its ritual status but by its landownership, numerical strength, and political power.
Desai critiqued the concept of the welfare state, arguing that even the most developed capitalist societies fail to ensure freedom from poverty and economic inequality. He identified the mixed economy as a defining feature of welfare states but pointed out its inherent contradictions. Desai argued that class conflict and the capitalist profit motive continue to undermine efforts at social equality in welfare states.
| Feature of State | Marxist Perspective (A.R. Desai) | Non-Marxist View |
|---|---|---|
| Economic Inequality | Capitalism perpetuates inequality | Welfare states aim to reduce inequality |
| Role of State | State should actively redistribute wealth | State should provide social services but allow market forces |
| Democracy | Democracy essential but often compromised | Multi-party democracy is the defining feature |
MCQ
Which of
the following was a major contribution of M.N. Srinivas to Indian sociology?
A. The concept of Dominant Caste
B. The critique of the welfare state
C. The diffusionist perspective
Answer: A
These pioneering sociologists—Ghurye, Mukerji, Desai, and Srinivas—laid the foundation for a distinctly Indian sociology. They tackled complex social realities, adapting Western sociological theories to fit India’s unique context. Through their work, sociology evolved into a powerful tool for understanding and transforming Indian society.