Economic and Social Life under the Mughals

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the economic and social conditions during the Mughal era.
2. Recognize the disparity between the ruling class and the masses.
3. Analyze the role of agriculture and trade in the Mughal economy.
4. Identify the structure and influence of the Mughal nobility and zamindars.
5. Comprehend the impact of European traders on India’s foreign trade.

Economic and Social Conditions

The Mughal Empire reached its territorial peak by the end of the seventeenth century, facing numerous political and administrative problems. However, the period from Akbar’s advent to the century’s end saw significant social and economic developments without fundamental changes. European traders and travelers who visited India during this era highlighted the stark contrast between the wealth and prosperity of the ruling classes and the extreme poverty of the peasants, artisans, and laborers.

1. Clothing: Babur and other European travelers noted the scanty clothing of the ordinary people, with men wearing a simple langota or cloth around their middle and women wearing saris.
2. Footwear: Nikitin observed that the people of the Deccan went barefoot, and shoes were uncommon north of the Narmada river due to the high cost of leather.
3. Housing: Villagers lived in mud houses with minimal furniture, typically cots, bamboo mats, and earthen utensils made by local potters.

Regarding food, the staple diet consisted of rice, millets, and pulses, with fish in Bengal and the coastal regions and meat in southern India. The ordinary people typically consumed their main meal in the evening, with ghee and oil being staple parts of their diet, although salt and sugar were more expensive. Despite limited clothing and footwear, the masses generally ate better, as grazing land allowed for more cattle and dairy products.

Important Note: The living standards of the masses depended significantly on income and wages, with village artisans often paid in commodities rather than money, reflecting the economic inequality within the village society.

The Ruling Classes: The Nobles and Zamindars

The nobility and zamindars constituted the ruling class in medieval India, forming a privileged and influential group. Although theoretically open to all, the Mughal nobility was primarily drawn from aristocratic families. Initially, the nobility was dominated by individuals from Turan, Tajikistan, Khurasan, and Iran, but over time, Afghans, Indian Muslims (Hindustanis), and Hindus were increasingly inducted.

1. Hindus in Nobility: From Akbar’s time, Hindus, especially Rajputs, were regularly inducted into the nobility, with key figures like Raja Man Singh and Raja Birbal holding significant influence.
2. Diversity: By Jahangir and Shah Jahan’s reigns, the nobility had become a composite class, representing various regions and religions, and contributing to the cultural richness of India.
3. Economic Role: Nobles often invested in the economy by buying land, building markets, lending money, or participating in trade.

Although the Mughal nobles received extremely high salaries, their expenses were also substantial due to maintaining large households, stables, and retinues. The nobility, despite its feudal character, exhibited bureaucratic traits and increasingly engaged in commercial activities, indirectly contributing to the economy’s growth.

Zamindars and The Rural Gentry

Personal ownership of land was deeply rooted in India, with zamindars holding hereditary rights to collect land revenue from villages. The zamindars were not owners of all the lands in their territories; the peasants who cultivated the land could not be dispossessed as long as they paid the land revenue. Zamindars played a crucial role in local governance and were often closely connected with the peasants through caste and clan ties.

1. Hereditary Rights: Zamindars and peasants had hereditary rights in the land, with the zamindar receiving a portion of the revenue as a share.
2. Armed Forces: Zamindars and rajas maintained their armed forces and generally lived in forts or garhis, which served as both a place of refuge and a status symbol.
3. Social Influence: Zamindars set social standards, provided capital for new villages, and organized the extension and improvement of cultivation.

The middle strata during the Mughal period included small mansabdars, shopkeepers, master craftsmen, professionals, and petty officials. This group was essential in bridging the gap between the rich and poor, although they did not form a distinct class. Their interests varied, and they were drawn from different religious groups and castes.

Organization of Trade and Commerce

India’s trading classes were well-organized and professional, engaging in both long-distance and local trade. Specialized traders, like the banjaras, transported bulk goods over long distances, while others focused on more expensive items like textiles. The country’s trade was supported by a financial system that facilitated the easy transmission of money through hundis (letters of credit), and sarrafs (money changers) acted as private bankers.

1. Regional Trade: India’s inter-regional trade was not limited to luxuries but also included essential goods like food grains, textiles, and spices.
2. Financial System: The use of hundis, which often included insurance, helped facilitate trade across regions, while sarrafs played a crucial role in managing and creating credit.
3. Merchant Communities: India’s trading community was diverse, comprising Hindus, Jains, Muslims, and other groups, each with a specific regional focus.

Despite the challenges, foreign trade expanded under the Mughals, with ports like Gujarat and Bengal playing key roles. India’s favorable balance of trade resulted in a significant inflow of gold and silver, making the country a sink for precious metals. The advent of European traders, particularly the Dutch and English, further diversified India’s export markets, although Indian traders maintained a dominant role in Asian trade.

MCQ:

Which of the following best describes the impact of the Mughal nobility on the Indian economy?

1. The nobility primarily hoarded wealth, contributing little to the economy.
2. The nobility’s spending and investments indirectly stimulated economic growth.
3. The nobility focused solely on agricultural development.
4. The nobility hindered economic growth by monopolizing trade.

Answer: 2

Comparison Table: